The debate surrounding the link between marijuana and psychosis continues. The general consensus up to this point acknowledges a possible risk, but there still is no causal link between the two. However, a new study, from Dr. Marta Di Forti and colleagues out of Kings College London, has just been published in the journal The Lancet - Psychiatry may shine some much-needed light on the subject. Photo source: UnSplash.com Dr. Di Forti and colleagues present the results of the largest cross-sectional study to date according to the authors. Psychiatric patients were recruited from sites across 10 European countries and Brazil. The study used patients aged 18–64 years who presented to psychiatric services across the 11 sites with first-episode psychosis. They recruited controls from local populations. The research group found that daily cannabis use was associated with an increased chance of developing a psychotic disorder compared with controls who had never used. This study contained participants (901 patients with first-episode psychosis and 1237 controls) definitely makes a statement, to say the least. What makes this study different from others (other than size), is the fact that these researchers added the degree of potency into the mix. The potency of marijuana has increased tremendously in just the past 50 years. The researchers found that the use of high-potency cannabis (THC ≥10%) modestly increased the odds of having a psychotic disorder compared with controls. Those who had started using high-potency cannabis by age 15 years showed a doubling of risk. Photo source: Pixabay.com The authors' main conclusions were that, among the measures of cannabis use tested, the strongest independent predictors of whether any given individual would have a psychotic disorder or not were daily use of cannabis and use of high-potency cannabis. In the 3 sites with the greatest consumption of high-potency cannabis, daily use of high-potency cannabis was associated with the greatest increase in the chances of having a psychotic disorder compared with controls: 4x greater in Paris, 5x greater in London, and more than 9x greater in Amsterdam. But the implications of this study do not stop there. The novelty of this study was in its multicenter structure and the availability of incidence rates for psychotic disorder for all the sites. This allowed the team, for the first time, to show how the association between cannabis use and risk of psychosis varies geographically depending on prevailing patterns of use, and how the latter contributes to variation in incidence rates for psychotic disorder. Some limitations of this study included the fact that marijuana use was not verified using any biological markers (e.g. urine, blood, hair samples). Also, their index of potency was limited. They categorized potency as low and high potency on the basis of the available estimates of the average percentage of THC from "official sources". Sources: Schizophrenia Bulletin, The Lancet, PotGuide.com

Mercury, the first planet from the Sun - The Forgotten Planet. With the search for life beyond Earth primarily focusing on Mars and the rest of the solar system, it’s easy to forget about the small rocky world that orbits closest to our own star that lacks any signs of hosting even the smallest forms of life. But while it seems like we have forgotten about it in the quest for life beyond Earth, the planet Mercury has a rich history of observation, with Mercury itself being mentioned as far back as the 2nd millennium BC by the Sumerians, and recorded by the Babylonians, who called it the planet Nabu. Another reason we might forget about this fantastic world is the difficulty of actually getting there. While Mercury is about 80 million miles closer to Earth than Mars, the problem lies in the enormous gravity from our own Sun, which increases drastically the closer we get to it. Any spacecraft designed to enter Mercury’s orbit has to conduct constant braking maneuvers to counteract our Sun’s enormous gravitational pull, which can be both financially costly and extremely dangerous. One wrong maneuver and the spacecraft literally gets drawn into the Sun! Here we will explore Mercury’s physical characteristics, structure, and evolution; its history in terms of contributions to astronomy; and the few successful missions that have explored this wonderful world. Onward to Mercury! Physical Characteristics and Geology Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar system, even smaller than the (dwarf) planet Pluto. It takes less than 90 days to orbit the Sun, and it has what’s called a 3-to-2 spin-orbit resonance, meaning it rotates three times on its axis for every two times it orbits the Sun. This unique characteristic is due to it being tidally locked with the Sun, much like Earth’s Moon is tidally locked with Earth, with the difference being our Moon has a 1-to-1 spin-orbit resonance, which is why we always see the same face of the Moon pointing at Earth. Like the other terrestrial planets of the solar system, Mercury possesses a solid crust, mantle, and core. Despite its minute size, its density is the second highest in the solar system, just slightly less than Earth, which is due to its immense core that comprises 57% of its volume. For comparison, Earth’s core makes up only 17% of its own volume. At first glance, the surface geology of Mercury can easily be mistaken for our own Moon, as it’s marked with both volcanic-like plains and heavy cratering, the latter of which indicates it has been geologically inactive for possibly billions of years. Due to its close proximity to the Sun, its surface temperature is unbelievably hot, with temperature fluctuations ranging from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F). Due to its small size and extreme heat it is incapable of sustaining any significant atmosphere for the long term, but is hypothesized to possess what’s commonly referred to as an exosphere, which is a thin, atmospheric-like volume that envelopes a planet or natural satellite where molecules can be bound to that body. In this case, Mercury’s exosphere has been found to contain hydrogen helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, and potassium. Ancient Astronomers Despite its rather dreary physical appearance and absence of any forms of life, Mercury has been studied throughout human history by several ancient civilizations. As previously mentioned, these observations date as far back as the 2nd millennium BC by the Sumerians where it was referred to as the planet Nabu by the Babylonians. The Greeks later called the planet Apollo when it was seen in the morning sky, and Hermes when it was seen in the evening sky. Mercury was ultimately given its current name by the Romans, which they equated with the Greek messenger god Hermes, due to it moving across the sky faster than any other planet. The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Galileo Galilei in the early 17th century, but his crude telescope was not able to observe the phases of Mercury, as he had observed with the planet Venus. The first observation of a transit of Mercury passing in front of our Sun was conducted by Pierre Gassendi in 1631, with a subsequent publication of these observations in 1632. Spacecraft Observations Despite Mercury being studied well into the 20th century, only three spacecrafts have visited the first planet from our Sun. For comparison, a total of 38 spacecraft have at least been partially successful in visiting Venus, 25 to Mars, 9 to Jupiter, and 4 to Saturn. The remaining outer planets of Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto have each had one spacecraft visit. The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA’s Mariner 10, whose mission lasted from 1974-75. As mentioned previously, any spacecraft visiting Mercury has to undergo numerous braking maneuvers due to the Sun’s incredible gravity, which Mariner 10 successfully conducted and performed several flybys of the planets, returning over 2700 images of the surface during three flybys over the course of one year. The planet Mercury was not visited again until 2011, when the MESSENGER spacecraft entered an elliptical orbit. This was achieved after accomplishing numerous gravity-assist maneuvers around Earth, Venus, and eventually Mercury before settling in to accomplish its primary mission. Mariner 10’s mission was extended several times, ultimately sending back 100,000 images of Mercury, mapping the entire planet in high-resolution monochrome and in color, and even found evidence of past volcanic activity, and even water ice at Mercury’s poles. The most recent spacecraft mission to Mercury is BepiColombo, which is a joint mission between the European Space Agency and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, and is scheduled to achieve Mercury orbit in 2025. The Forgotten Planet should not be Forgotten While the planet Mercury possesses characteristics much similar to Earth’s Moon, is devoid of life, and is incredibly difficult to study with spacecrafts, it nonetheless has taught us, and will undoubtedly continue to teach us about the early history of the solar system, which brings us one step closer to learning how we got here in the first place. Mercury is a fantastic world, one that should be studied in depth, and one that should not be forgotten despite its dreary characteristics. As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: Universe Today; European Space Agency; Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and the Outer Solar System; NASA; Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory; Space Science Reviews (1); Space Science Reviews (2); The Voyage of Mariner 10 – Mission to Venus and Mercury; MacTutor; Space Answers; NASA Mars; NASA JPL; NASA Solar System Exploration (1); NASA Solar System Exploration (2); NASA Solar System Exploration (3); NASA Solar System Exploration (4)

Earlier this month, the China National Space Administration (CNSA) made history by becoming the first space agency ever to drop a lander on the ‘Dark Side’ of the Moon; but as it would seem, this was only the beginning of China’s record-setting agenda. China’s lander, dubbed Chang’e-4, was built and deployed to explore the Moon’s ‘Dark Side’ in the name of science. It carried a whole host of instruments for this very purpose, but the Chinese space agency also tucked a few science experiments away in the lander’s cargo hold to ‘see what would happen.’ Image Credit: Chongqing University One of those experiments, led by researcher Liu Hanlong of Chongqing University, involved shipping a miniature sealed biosphere to the lunar surface. The canister’s contents comprised of cotton, potato, and yeast seeds, and to make things a bit more interesting, the researchers even stuffed a few fruit fly eggs inside. Related: Can we grow large numbers of plants in space? Astonishingly, the experiment appeared to work – at least for a while. Citing various reports, cotton seeds within the one-liter, 5.7-pound canister allegedly sprouted to become the first of any known biological matter to grow on the lunar surface. Unfortunately, the fun didn’t last very long. Nighttime soon rolled around, doing away with the Sun’s life-supporting warmth and creating a chilly environment inside of the canister. Without a heater to keep the contents warm, the temperature inside the canister dropped to a frigid -52º Celsius (-62º Fahrenheit), which was much too cold for the sprouts to survive. In almost no time at all, they began wilting away. To make matters worse, it takes nearly 27 Earth days for the Moon to complete a full rotation, which means a lunar night persists for more than 13 days. Even if the plants could survive a single cold night here on Earth, there’s no way they’d be able to sustain such a long chill period on the lunar surface. Related: The Moon is closer, so shouldn't we colonize it instead of Mars? Plants have been grown, sustained, and even eaten on the International Space Station before, and so it’s conceivable that the Moon-based plants could have survived if there had been a heat source present at the time. Unfortunately, we won’t know that for sure until the experiment gets repeated under better circumstances. On a more positive note, the dead plants are being contained inside of a sealed canister. That said, they won’t contaminate the lunar surface as they degrade. Image Credit: Chongqing University Given all the sudden interest in extraplanetary deep-space missions as of late, growing plants in space is a big deal; it presents humanity with the opportunity to produce sustainable food in deep space, freeing valuable spacecraft cargo space and shaving down the costs of such missions. It should be interesting to see if future attempts to grow plants on the lunar surface fare better, but only time will tell. Source: BBC, Engadget, Space.com

Scientists have known that wherever humans go, we carry microorganisms with us, and the International Space Station is no exception. Several types of non-pathogenic bacteria and fungi have been found there in recent studies that have looked for the presence of microbes on the ISS. Some of that bacteria is thought to come from Earth during the assembly of various parts of the ISS. Now researchers have discovered three novel strains of bacteria that have been found on two consecutive ISS trips. The microbes are from the Methylobacteriaceae family, and they could help scientists learn more about how to promote plant growth in space. The findings have been reported in Frontiers in Microbiology. Methylobacteria are good for plants; they play roles in stress tolerance in sterile environments, nitrogen fixation, the promotion of plant growth, phosphate solubilization, and protection against plant pathogens. One strain that was found in this study is known: Methylorubrum rhodesianum. Three others are novel, rod-shaped, motile bacteria. A genetic analysis showed they're related to Methylobacterium indicum. They are now designated IF7SW-B2T, IIF1SW-B5, and IIF4SW-B5, and a proposed name is Methylobacterium ajmalii for Indian biodiversity scientist Dr. Ajmal Khan. There are very few resources for plants to draw on in space, so it will be critical to know as much as we can about what plants need to grow there as humans spend more time on missions and explore the idea of going to Mars. More work will be needed, but microbes like these may be critical for plants to grow in those stressful environments. Beneficial microbes may be a good addition to the ISS. But the researchers also noted that crew safety is the first priority, so it's important to have a good understanding of how plant pathogens might interact with humans in an environment like the ISS. For the last six years, monitoring for bacterial growth has been happening at eight places on the ISS, like the plant growth chamber, and the location where experiments are conducted. Although hundreds of these samples have been assessed, there are many more that were gathered from other sites on the ISS that are still awaiting a ride back to earth where they can be analyzed. The study authors are hopeful that eventually, there will be molecular biology equipment onboard the space station that will be able to perform the analysis. Sources: Phys.org via Frontiers, Frontiers in Microbiology

Scientists that study molecules in cells use a common tool to spotlight the proteins they are interested in - they mark stuff in the cell with tags that light up when illuminated by fluorescent lighting. It is then possible to easily and clearly see the location of proteins within a cell. One of the most common tags employed by researchers is the green fluorescent protein (GFP). It is a naturally occurring molecule that comes from fluorescent jellyfish, and has spawned many color variations over the years through manipulation of its protein code. Bright red has been an elusive color, however. While there are some shades of red currently available, many researchers including myself will say the reds don’t match the incredible intensity of GFP. New work reported in Nature Methods by Professor of Molecular Cytology Dorus Gadella and doctoral researchers Daphne Bindels and Lindsay Haarbosch at Universiteit van Amsterdam (UVA) has produced such a red. Dubbing the new fluorescent tag mScarlet, it emits an extremely bright red shade of fluorescence. The researchers expect it to be useful for scientists working around the world in myriad fields. The mScarlet tag was created by analyzing the varying red fluorescent proteins that have been known to exist in corals. While the corals have been seen as a chance to create a red fluorescent protein, this is the first success reported. The researchers found the genetic sequences that were common to the various coral red fluorescent proteins; deducing that sequences that were common to all of the coral would be critical parts of the protein. After putting these parts of the sequence together to make a complete strand of DNA, that whole sequence was inserted into a bacterium. The scientists then observed as it was made into a red fluorescent protein by the cellular machinery of the bacterium. The intensity of the color was assessed, and the researchers then tinkered with the DNA code to determine how alterations in the code affected the brightness. Their experiments made for a kind of lab-based evolution in which the optimum code was determined through various methodologies. This will hopefully be a boon to scientists studying cells under the microscope. The investigators also demonstrated that the tag does not affect proteins that it is attached to, so there seems to be no concern about unwanted side effects. “Just as other people study the stars and prepare future trips to Mars, we are exploring the universe of the proteins that regulate the cellular processes within our bodies, “ said Gadella. Although the research article is unfortunately behind a paywall, you can still see very short movies of the red fluorescent protein in action on the Nature Methods site - click on the videos tab under the abstract for this work here. Sources: Science Daily via UVA, Nature Methods

When a small or medium-sized star reaches the end of its life, it becomes a white dwarf. Suns produce energy by fusing hydrogen to create helium. When it runs out of hydrogen to fuse, the star begins to collapse. The star then expels most of its outer material, creating a nebula with only the core of the star remaining. The core becomes a white dwarf the size of the Earth, but it’s about 200,000 times denser. The chemical compounds of white dwarves sometimes contain the remnants of the planets that used to orbit them. These compounds are presented on the surface of a white dwarf, making them possible to observe. When researchers began to study the chemical makeups of these white dwarves, they discovered evidence of planets with very different elements than those found in our solar system. In a study published in Nature Communications, researchers looked at 23 polluted white dwarves (white dwarves containing some remnants from exoplanets). They found that most had some unique elements, suggesting that the exoplanets it swallowed had mantles that did not resemble the rocky planets in our solar system (Earth, Mars, Venus, and Mercury). Since these white dwarves are approximately 650 million light-years away from the sun, determining their elemental makeup requires different techniques than we use to determine Earth’s elements. To do this, researchers measure the wavelengths of the light given off by white dwarves because each element has a different signature on the electromagnetic spectrum. It’s a common technique used to observe the elements for many objects in the universe. The researchers found that some of the polluted white dwarves had a large amount of silicon, indicating that the exoplanets that once surrounded the planet had mantels containing quartz (a compound made of silicon and oxygen). Earth’s mantle, on the other hand, contains very little quartz. While these exoplanets may still have solid, rocky mantles, their makeups can cause drastic differences in the planet’s evolutions. For instance, a mantle with large amounts of quartz could affect geographical formations or even the ratio of water to land. This has implications for the evolution of life on these planets. The results are not so cut and dry, though. A sun’s transition from star to white dwarf is catastrophic, and researchers don’t know if the elements that end up on a white dwarf’s surface are the same ones an exoplanet began with. Planets could smash into one another or become engulfed by the sun’s expanding atmosphere. Further studies into the compositions of distant will aid in answering these questions and potentially give us insight into why our own solar system’s planets are so fundamentally different. Source: Nature Communications

Pluto's largest moon, Charon. (Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute) Labroots recently explored Saturn’s sponge-like moon, Hyperion, with its deep craters and non-spherical shape. This moon is an example of how the Universe and the laws of astrophysics work in both wonderful and mysterious ways. Here, we will explore a moon that exists much farther away from Earth than Hyperion, and that’s Pluto’s largest moon, Charon. Pluto’s moon, Charon was discovered in June 1978 by at the US Naval Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, by Robert Harrington and James Christy as the two astronomers were conducting research on trying to refine Pluto’s orbit around our Sun and identified Charon almost entirely by accident during their research. Contrary to our own Moon, which is approximately one-quarter the diameter of Earth and orbits approximately 250,000 miles away, Charon’s diameter is almost half the size of Pluto while only orbiting just over 12,000 miles from Pluto. The close size between Pluto and Charon which makes Charon the largest known satellite compared to its parent body, and they are often referred to as a double dwarf planet system. Charon is a geologically diverse planetary body, with scientists having identified 16 different types of geologic units, meaning there are 16 different types of landscapes that cover its surface. These surface features include craters, cliffs, troughs, scarps, various types of terrain, graben, and crests, and other features, as well. One unique feature that scientists discovered about Charon is most of its craters appear to be very young, which is something they weren’t expecting, especially since old craters are frequently observed on various planetary bodies throughout the Solar System, specifically on Mars. The only spacecraft to visit Charon up-close is NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft, which flew through the Pluto system in July 2015. This was the first time that both Pluto and Charon were both imaged up-close, and this quick flyby revealed so much about Charon, to include a red spot near its north polar region. For now, there are no missions currently scheduled to re-visit Pluto and its largest moon, but scientists have a treasure trove of data that they’re still pouring over that could teach us even more about Charon in the coming years. What new insights will we learn about this large and mysterious moon? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! Sources: Labroots, NASA, AGU, NASA (1), Labroots (1) As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

Blockchain is a database of information shared across a network. They're known in cryptocurrency systems like Bitcoin. Blockchain technology has the potential to revolutionize the drug discovery process by streamlining data sharing, collaboration among researchers, and enhancing transparency and security. One main benefit of blockchain technology is that it can enable greater data privacy and control for patients. With the rise of personalized medicine and genomics-based drug discovery, patient data privacy has become a critical issue in drug development. Patients are rightfully concerned about their personal data, since no one wants their information out in public, especially sensitive information such as medical records. Blockchain can enable secure and transparent sharing of patient data while ensuring that the patient has full control over their data. With blockchain's cryptographic security and privacy features, patients can have greater confidence in the security and privacy of their data and can be more willing to participate in clinical trials and other research studies. Learn more about how blockchain can impact drug discovery: In addition to improving data sharing and privacy, blockchain can also increase the efficiency and speed of drug development by enabling smart contracts and automated processes. Smart contracts can enable automated verification and execution of contract terms, processes that would take much longer otherwise. It can automate other processes in drug development including target discovery, supply chain, product distribution, tracking the shipments, etc. By automating these processes, blockchain can reduce administrative overhead and increase the speed and efficiency of drug development. Blockchain technology has the potential to transform the drug discovery process by enhancing data sharing, privacy, and security, increasing efficiency and speed, and enabling new forms of collaboration and innovation. While there may be challenges to its adoption, the potential benefits of blockchain technology in drug discovery are significant and warrant further exploration and development. As the technology continues to evolve and mature, it is likely to play an increasingly important role in drug development. References https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp Zakari N, Al-Razgan M, Alsaadi A, et al. Blockchain technology in the pharmaceutical industry: a systematic review. PeerJ Comput Sci. 2022;8:e840. Published 2022 Mar 11. doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.840 Kiania K, Jameii SM, Rahmani AM. Blockchain-based privacy and security preserving in electronic health: a systematic review [published online ahead of print, 2023 Feb 17]. Multimed Tools Appl. 2023;1-27. doi:10.1007/s11042-023-14488-w https://pharmaboardroom.com/articles/are-you-smart-enough-blockchain-smart-contract-applications-in-pharma/

The search for life beyond Earth has reached a fever pitch, with possible locations to find even microbial life being Mars, Jupiter’s moon Europa, Saturn’s moons Titan and Enceladus, Neptune’s moon Triton, and even the clouds of hellish Venus. Countless missions have been sent to these amazing worlds, with many more having been approved and given speculative launch dates, including NASA’s Europa Clipper mission and NASA’s DAVINVI+ and VERITAS missions to Venus in the next few years. But what about Pluto? Why can’t this distant world just chilling (pun intended) way out in the Kuiper Belt have the potential for life, too? Have we allowed Pluto’s reclassification as a dwarf planet to make us doubtful to the possibility for life there? Maybe it’s the vast distance from Earth, given how it took NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft nine years to travel the void to accomplish a quick flyby of this small icy world. However, that short flyby revealed a much different world that we initially envisioned. We literally saw a world with mountains, valleys, and plains, along with craters, indicating a (relatively) young surface, and one that scientists have indicated might even be geologically active today. Other studies have indicated the possibility of a subsurface liquid water ocean on Pluto either currently or in its past, oceans that have been shown to already exist on Europa and Enceladus. Given the incredible distance and time it takes for conventional spacecrafts to reach Pluto, it might be several decades until we visit this icy world again. But this is why we do science, and this is the essence of exploration, to see what’s around the next bend in the road and visit far away worlds unknown. If life exists there, either on its surface or just beneath, what will it be like? Will it resemble “life as we know it”, or something entirely new and different? The search for life beyond Earth is ratcheting up as the possibilities of life-bearing worlds increase, and there’s no reason why Pluto should be left by the wayside as we continue to science and explore these worlds unknown. With an active geology and the prospect of a subsurface ocean, this is why we will find life on Pluto, and why we must go back. As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: WLRN, Phys.org, European Space Agency, EarthSky, Forbes, University of Wisconsin-Madison, NASA Europa Clipper Mission, NASA, Britannica, ABC News, NASA Solar System Exploration, Johns Hopkins University, Scientific American

Icy satellites have become a hot topic for astrobiology and the search for life beyond Earth due to their interior oceans. But what else makes them stand out from the larger rocky worlds like Earth? A pair of researchers from the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and NASA JPL hope to dive further into this after developing a model to explain the unique radar properties of icy moons orbiting Jupiter and Saturn, which involves their a phenomena known as coherent backscatter opposition effect (CBOE). This study holds the potential to help scientists better understand how the characteristics of icy worlds differ from their rocky counterparts. Artist illustration of a ridge on Jupiter's moon, Europa. (Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI) “Six different models have been published in an attempt to explain the radar signatures of the icy moons that orbit Jupiter and Saturn,” said Dr. Jason Hofgartner, who is a Senior Research Scientist at SwRI and first author of the study. “The way these objects scatter radar is drastically different than that of the rocky worlds, such as Mars and Earth, as well as smaller bodies such as asteroids and comets.” Scientists have observed some icy moons exhibit brightness in regions where darkness should be the stronger characteristic. “When we look up at Earth's moon it looks like a circular disk, even though we know it's a sphere. Planets and other moons similarly look like disks through telescopes,” said Hofgartner. “While making radar observations, the center of the disk is very bright and the edges much darker. The change from center to edge is very different for these icy satellites than for rocky worlds.” Studies of CBOE date back to the 1990s, but scientists debated the methods behind the phenomenon. Working with Dr. Kevin Hand of NASA JPL, the pair were able to produce a modified CBOE model, which helped explain all of the radar characteristics of icy satellites. “I think that tells us that the surfaces of these objects and their subsurfaces down to many meters are very tortured,” said Dr. Hofgartner. “They’re not very uniform. Icy rocks dominate the landscape, perhaps looking somewhat like the chaotic mess after a landslide. That would explain why the light is bouncing in so many different directions, giving us these unusual polarization signatures.” What new discoveries will scientists make about icy satellites and their characteristics in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! Sources: Nature Astronomy, SwRI As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

Space exploration is becoming a staple of modern science, which means we’re sending more landers and satellites into outer space today than ever. From a research perspective, sending these advanced spacecraft to their destination in our solar system is a great move, but there are more things to take into consideration than just what we might find. One of the most important of them all is what could be riding along on our spacecraft. Indeed, things we send into space are teeming with microbiology that spawned right here on Earth, and those microbes could potentially contaminate their future landing sites. Image Credit: Skeeze/Pixabay For instance, future missions to put humankind on Mars and to visit potentially habitable moons in our solar system, such as Enceladus, Europa, or Titan will need to be planned carefully to ensure that biology from Earth doesn’t hitch a ride and contaminate these environments. If it did, it could throw false positives about what we find; or worse, it could behave invasively and negatively impact existing life forms. Additionally, bringing spacecraft back home from other places in the solar system needs to be conducted in a similarly safe fashion. Just as we don’t want to contaminate other worlds in the solar system with Earth-based life, we don’t want to contaminate our planet with life forms that could potentially reside in the other worlds we visit. One of the problems we face is that bacteria have already proven how it can survive in outer space, so during long trips to other asteroids, comets, moons, or planets, these bacteria will multiply and thrive until they eventually arrive at their destination, where they can wreak havoc. Related: Life can adapt to microgravity, research finds To help coordinate the process of sterilizing spacecraft that both leave and enter our atmosphere, NASA is hiring for a new position entitled Planetary Protection Officer, and it comes with a generous six-figure salary ranging from $124,406-$187,000. The position opened in mid-July and will close in mid-August, so there’s still time for applicants to try their luck at the job. As you can imagine, it's not intended for the average Joe; it lists a whole host of prerequisites. NASA wants a qualified individual with a smorgasbord of expertise in space exploration, physical science, engineering, and mathematics, as well as a solid sense of diplomacy to oversee this department to ensure its success. As the future of space exploration appears to be taking a turn for physical landings rather than flybys, the position will be a critical one. Source: Business Insider

The outermost layer of the Earth is the crust. The continents sit on continental crust, which covers about 41 percent of the surface of the Earth; the remainder is covered by oceanic crust. The thickness of the crust varies, with some oceanic crusts being as thin as about eight kilometers, and continental crusts ranging from twenty to eighty kilometers thick. The oldest stable continental crust is thought to have formed around four billion years ago, when it was mostly made up of basaltic rock that was about twenty to fifty kilometers thick. One crust may have covered the entire planet, which started to break up around 1 billion years later, into the individual plates that exist now. However, researchers are beginning to rethink that theory. The movement of the plates on the surface of the Earth, known as plate tectonics, may have actually driven the formation of the continental crust, eventually forming the landmasses that we are familiar with today. New work has investigated oceanic plateaus, which are huge, flat elevations with steep edges, that can represent the early crust that began to form from 3.6 to 4 billion years ago. Models of these oceanic plateaus were subjected to melting experiments, since crust formation likely involved volcanic activity and high temperatures and pressures. Melting can occur in the crust itself, or when plates converge to cause changes in the composition of magma. This research indicated that continental crust cannot form when pressures are less than 1.4 GigaPascals (GPa) up to a depth of fifty kilometers. Chemical signatures found in ancient contiental crusts have signs of subduction. Thus, magmas probably formed as plates were converging and colliding. The study indicated that even primitive forms of plate tectonics were active as long as 4 billion years ago. Plate tectonics still play a major role in processes like mountain formation, erosion, deposition, and volcanic activity, which can impact continental crust formation. Gases like methane and carbon dioxide, which were released by these ancient volcanoes, could have acted as prebiotic molecules that helped early forms of life arise on Earth. The study noted that understanding processes that occured on a young Earth can help us understand how the planet became a safe place for humans. This work could also help us understand geology on other planets with tectonic activity like Mars and Venus. Sources: Phys.org; Nature Geoscience Hastie et al, 2023; Nature Geoscience Nutman, 2023

Phagocytosis is the molecular version of taking out the trash; certain cells, called macrophages, are tasked with engulfing and breaking down dead or dying cells to keep the molecular environment clean. The newest investigation reveals, though, that phagocytosis plays another role in the body: “educating” macrophages. The investigation began with an experimental mouse model where the circulations of two mice were connected, to visualize how one mouse’s macrophages responded to the other mouse’s cells, which would be recognized as foreign. The cells of one mouse were altered to express fluorescent proteins. “When macrophages from the non-fluorescent mouse ingest cells from the partner mouse, they acquire their fluorescence," explains Noelia Alonso-González. This study marks the first time scientists could isolate macrophages, which are typically found in all types of body tissues, and study phagocytosis in living tissue. Previous studies showed that when phagocytosis goes wrong for whatever reason, autoimmune disorders often develop, but researchers weren’t yet sure about the details of that connection. The results from the mouse model study showed that macrophages are different in each type of tissue, and phagocytosing macrophages are different from non-phagocytosing macrophages. What does this mean? There is a healthy balance in the immune system between regulating the inflammatory process and promoting phagocytosis, and the actual phagocytosis process “educates” the immune system in how to regulate the health of the bodys’ tissue to prevent autoimmune reactions. Photo: Microscopy images of macrophages in the process of ingesting another cell or with another cell already in their interior. The images on the right show this process in living tissues, with the phagocytosed cell in green and the macrophage in red. In these examples, the ingested cells are neutrophils. Credit: CNIC/ Images generated by Jose María Adrover Montemayor and Noelia Alonso González. "This discovery suggests that it should in principle be possible to modulate phagocytosis in individual organs, without altering events in neighboring organs,” Alonso-Gonzalez said. “One could, for example, promote the elimination of dangerous cells in the spleen without risking elimination of beneficial cells in the lung." With a macrophage presence evident in virtually all body tissues, the opportunities for taking advantage of their phagocytotic nature seem nearly endless. More studies in the future will show how understanding the connection between macrophages and phagocytosis can help scientists regulate and prevent disease. The present study was published in the Journal of Experimental Medicine. Source: Centro Nacional de Investigadores Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC)

16 Psyche, a heavy metal asteroid hanging out in the asteroid belt, was once thought to be worth $10 quintillion USD in metals, but a recent study in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets believes this heavy metal asteroid might not be so heavy metal after all. While Psyche orbits in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter and is the largest of the M-type asteroids (asteroids which appear to contain higher concentrations of metal phases than other asteroid classes), its composition appears to be sending mixed signals back to Earth. While Psyche’s composition has been determined based on studying light reflecting from its surface, Psyche’s gravitational behavior tells a different story. The way it apparently tugs on its neighboring bodies suggests it’s far less porous (having minute spaces or holes through which liquid or air may pass) and less heavy metal than it should be. "What we wanted to do with this study was see whether it was possible for an iron body the size of Psyche to maintain that near-50% porosity," said Fiona Nichols-Fleming, a Ph.D. student at Brown and study's lead author. "We found that it's very unlikely." For Psyche to be as porous as the study indicates, computer models show that the heavy metal body would have to have cooled very rapidly after its formation. However, based on what scientists know about the conditions of the early solar system, it is unlikely that Psyche could have cooled so quickly given its size—about 140 miles in diameter. The researchers concluded that Psyche most likely isn’t a porous, all-iron body as previously believed. While studies continue to be conducted on Earth, NASA is making final preparations to launch the Psyche Mission to 16 Psyche in August of this year. The spacecraft is currently scheduled to arrive at this mysterious asteroid in 2026, and the mission calls for 21 months of scientific study while it orbits 16 Psyche. This historic mission is led by Principal Investigator, Dr. Lindy Elkins-Tanton, who is a Foundation and Regents Professor at the School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University (ASU) and also the Vice President of ASU’s Interplanetary Initiative. Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Arizona State University As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: Smithsonian Magazine, AGU, NASA JPL

Whether it’s an elderly person with heart failure or an astronaut scheduled for a long-duration spaceflight to Mars, understanding how blood vessels function in special circumstances is important for human health. From Kansas State University in partnership with the Johnson Space center and funded by NASA, researchers investigated the toll taken on astronauts’ heart health in space. The new kinesiology study included exercise capacity measurements from astronauts before and after they spent six months aboard the International Space Station. A stationary bike test conducted before and after their space trip measured oxygen uptake, cardiac output, hemoglobin concentration, and arterial saturation. These measurements show how effectively - or not - the body transports oxygen to the muscle mitochondria. Results from this classic before-and-after comparison were anything but surprising. The heart, which is made up of muscle tissue, is like any other muscle. You don’t use it, you lose it. It’s not that astronauts don’t need use of their heart in space, but they certainly don’t exercise it like they would on earth. "When your cardiovascular function decreases, your aerobic exercise capacity goes down,” explained a professor from the study, Carl Ade. “You can't perform physically challenging activities anymore.” Specifically, analysis showed a decrease in maximal oxygen uptake between 30 and 50 percent, a serious reduction in how much oxygen can be consumed during physical exercise and reflected a serious loss of cardiorespiratory health. Past research studies have indicated a loss of heart function was causing this effect in astronauts, but the present study shows that it’s also capillary dysfunction that is to blame. The small blood vessels, in addition to the heart, become less effective at pumping oxygen to muscle tissues all over the body. What do experts believe is causing the decrease in maximal oxygen uptake? Microgravity and its tendency to change the interaction between blood vessel capillaries and red blood cells; however, scientists are not quite sure yet what specifically happens in the capillaries to have this effect. "If we can understand why maximal oxygen uptake is going down, that allows us to come up with targeted interventions, whether that be exercise or pharmacological interventions,” Ade explained. “This important new information can help these astronauts and prevent any adverse performance changes in their job." The present study was published in the Journal of Applied Physiology. Source: Kansas State University

Engineers are continually working on developing more efficient, sustainable batteries – and there has been a lot of progress in the last years. One such development comes from researchers at Clemson University who have engineered a battery that could be used in space. Their lighter, faster-charging batteries are of interest to NASA because they could be used to power a spacesuit or potentially a Mars rover. A report on the technology was published recently in the American Chemical Society journal Applied Materials and Interfaces under the title, "Three-Dimensional Si Anodes with Fast Diffusion, High Capacity, High Rate Capability, and Long Cycle Life." One of the authors, Ramakrishna Podila, says the technology also has implications for satellites. "Most satellites mainly get their power from the sun," said Podila, who is an assistant professor in the College of Science's department of physics and astronomy and part of the Clemson Nanomaterials Institute (CNI). "But the satellites have to be able to store energy for when they are in the Earth's shadow. We have to make the batteries as light as possible, because the more the satellite weighs, the more its mission costs." Podila, along with co-authors Shailendra Chiluwal, Nawraj Sapkota, and Apparao M. Rao, used silicon nano-particles to store more electrical charge into the battery, which is supported by a carbon nanotube structure called Buckypaper. Silicon can hold more electrical charge than graphite but has the unfortunate property of breaking into smaller pieces as it charges and discharges. The Buckypaper helps hold the silicon nanoparticles in place. "The freestanding sheets of carbon nanotubes keep the silicon nanoparticles electrically connected with each other," said first author Shailendra Chiluwal. "These nanotubes form a quasi-three-dimensional structure, hold silicon nanoparticles together even after 500 cycles, and mitigate electrical resistance arising from the breaking of nanoparticles." Another benefit of silicon is that the batteries can charge at higher current. In other words, they can charge faster (up to four times!) than typical batteries. Silicon also is a light-weight material, so these batteries are not as heavy as conventional ones (ever try to lift a car battery?!). "Silicon as the anode in a lithium-ion battery represents the 'holy grail' for researchers in this field," said Rao, adding that they could also be used in electric vehicles. "Our next goal is to collaborate with industrial partners to translate this lab-based technology to the marketplace," said Podila. Sources: Applied Materials and Interfaces, Eureka Alert

How did our solar system form and is this process similar in other solar systems throughout the universe? This is what a study published today in Astronomy & Astrophysics hopes to figure out as a team of international researchers used data from the European Southern Observatory’s (ESO) Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) to analyze the protoplanetary disk around HD 144432, which is a young star located approximately 500 light-years from Earth. This study holds the potential to not only help researchers better understand the formation and evolution of solar systems, but also gain greater insight into how life could evolve in these systems, as well. “When studying the dust distribution in the disk’s innermost region, we detected for the first time a complex structure in which dust piles up in three concentric rings in such an environment,” said Dr. Roy van Boekel, who is a scientist at the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (MPIA) and one of more than three dozen co-authors on the study. “That region corresponds to the zone where the rocky planets formed in the Solar System.” For context in terms of the distance between the three rings, the innermost ring orbits at the same distance as Mercury, the second farthest ring orbits at the same distance as Mars, and the farthest ring orbits at the same distance as Jupiter. Artist illustration of the three dusty rings that orbit HD 144432, which is approximately 500 light-years from Earth. (Credit: Jenry) In addition to discovering the three dust rings, the team also ascertained the approximate temperature changes throughout the disk, as well, as the dust orbiting closer to the star can reach more than 2700 degrees Fahrenheit (1500 degrees Celsius) and as low as 77 degrees Fahrenheit (25 degrees Celsius) in the furthest regions of the system. The team deduced that this means crystals form closer to the star from the melting iron and other minerals recondensing, whereas carbon would become a gas due to the intense heat. However, the team postulates that carbon could still exist in vast abundances in the outer regions of the system. “We think that the HD 144432 disk may be very similar to the early Solar System that provided lots of iron to the rocky planets we know today,” said Dr. van Boekel. “Our study may pose as another example showing that the composition of our Solar System may be quite typical.” What new discoveries will astronomers make about the formation and evolution of our solar system, and other solar systems, in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: Astronomy & Astrophysics, Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, EurekAlert!

Astronauts are on average highly educated and have access to top-notch medical care. Their health outcomes are subsequently usually better than the general population. So why are some Apollo astronauts having higher than normal predispositions for heart disease? The Apollo space program sent 11 manned flights into space with 9 of them being beyond Earth’s orbit into what scientists call “deep space” during its 9 years of running (1961-1972). From Florida State University, researchers evaluated 7 Apollo astronauts out of the 24 total astronauts involved in lunar missions that went into deep space. One-third of these astronauts were dead at the time of the study, and forty percent of these astronauts died from cardiovascular-related complications. In their study published in the journal Scientific Reports, Florida State researchers subjected mice to deep space-like radiation for six months, the human equivalent of 20 years. Deep space radiation is made up of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), coming from outside Earth’s solar system but within Earth’s galaxy: the Milky Way. Although researchers are not yet sure what about GCRs causes cardiovascular complications in astronauts exposed to them, they do know that GCRs are made up of atomic nuclei that lose all of their surrounding electrons during their high-speed voyage across the galaxy. GCRs can also interact with each other and emit gamma rays, another type of radiation scientists known can damage DNA of healthy tissues in the human body. After six months of GCR radiation, the arteries of the experimental mice showed severe damage, known to lead to the development of atherosclerosis in humans. Atherosclerosis occurs when plaque deposits made up of fat, cholesterol, and calcium build up inside of arteries and cause blockages - it can lead to heart attack, stroke, even death. For the United States, where orbital missions around the moon are planned for the next two decades in preparation for a manned flight to Mars as well as others planning deep space flights in Russia, China, and the European Space Agency, it is vital to understand soon what causes astronaut heart complications from GCR exposure in order to prevent death later in life. Deep space radiation is clearly harmful to vascular health, but why? Future research into this relationship will hopefully give scientists more answers. Sources: NASA, Live Science, National Heart, Lungs, and Blood Institute, Florida State University

When the 29th SpaceX Commercial Resupply Services mission to the International Space Station (ISS) launches later this year, currently scheduled for November 1, it will carry the Integrated LCRD Low Earth Orbit User Modem and Amplifier Terminal (ILLUMA-T) to the orbiting outpost, along with a myriad of other scientific experiments and supplies. The purpose of ILLUMA-T is to work in tandem with the Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD), which launched to geosynchronous orbit—approximately 22,000 miles from Earth—onboard an Atlas V 551 in December 2021, to finish the first end-to-end, two-way laser relay system developed by NASA. “Laser communications offer missions more flexibility and an expedited way to get data back from space,” said Badri Younes, who is the former deputy associate administrator for NASA's Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) program. “We are integrating this technology on demonstrations near Earth, at the Moon, and in deep space.” The purpose of NASA’s SCaN program office is to display the potential for using laser communications from the ISS to Earth, which could hold the potential for its use on future crewed deep space missions, as well. As noted, LCRD has been in orbit since December 2021, and has been demonstrating its laser communications capabilities by beaming data back and forth between Earth-based stations and has been carrying out experiments prior to the launch of ILLUMA-T. “Once ILLUMA-T is on the space station, the terminal will send high-resolution data, including pictures and videos to LCRD at a rate of 1.2 gigabits-per-second,” said Matt Magsamen, who is the deputy project manager for ILLUMA-T. “Then, the data will be sent from LCRD to ground stations in Hawaii and California. This demonstration will show how laser communications can benefit missions in low Earth orbit.” Currently, data is transmitted via conventional radio frequency systems, but the combination of ILLUMA-T and LCRD hopes to be an accessory to traditional communications systems, as opposed to replacing them entirely. As noted, the development of laser communication technology will only broaden the scope of technological capabilities for future deep space crewed missions, specifically to the Moon, and possibly Mars. How will ILLUMA-T and LCRD help improve laser communication technologies in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: NASA, NASA (1), NASA (2), NASA (3), NASA (4)

Landing on planetary bodies is both risky and hard, and landing humans is even riskier and harder. This is why technology needs to be developed to mitigate the risks associated with landing large spacecraft on the Moon and other planetary bodies we plan to continue exploring, both in the near and distant future. This is what makes the Nova-C lunar lander from Intuitive Machines—which is scheduled to launch to the Moon on February 13 and also called Nova-C (IM-1)—so vital to returning humans to the Moon. One of its NASA science payloads will be the Navigation Doppler Lidar (NDL), which will serve as a technology demonstration for future landers to help them navigate risky terrain and land safely. Image of the Navigation Doppler Lidar which will be a technology demonstration during the IM-1 mission. (Credit: NASA/David C. Bowman) When NASA was landing robots on Mars in the 1990s and 2000s, they discovered that radar and radio waves were insufficient for accurate landing measurements, so the engineers had to come up with their own plan to land spacecraft on extraterrestrial worlds. “The landers needed the radar sensor to tell them how far they were off the ground and how fast they were moving so they could time their parachute deployment,” Dr. Farzin Amzajerdian, who is the NDL project manager, said in a statement. “Too early or too late, the lander would miss its target or crash into the surface.” Enter LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging), which was developed by NASA engineers to accurately calculate velocity and distance to the surface and if any objects, such as boulders, could impede a successful landing attempt. NDL is a concept 20 years in the making, as Dr. Amzajerdian proposed it to NASA back in 2004. While NDL won’t be the official landing system for the Nova-C lander, as it will have its own landing system, this technology demonstration for NDL could pave the way for future landers to incorporate the landing technology. How will NDL help future spacecraft land on other worlds in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: Next Spaceflight, Intuitive Machines, NASA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Space exploration and the related sciences surrounding our universe are growing interests for nations around the world, both developing and developed. Unfortunately, space-related activities are an expensive venture, and not all nations have the luxury of launching a rocket to study our solar system and beyond. Image Credit: PIRO4D/Pixabay On the other hand, Australia wants to change that about itself. The government announced this week its plans to establish the country’s first space agency to push the nation forward in space exploration and technological development. Talks are already beginning and will continue for some time to come, but the full details of the scope and structure of Australia’s upcoming space agency won't be decided until a future date. According to some reports, Australia's space agency will act very differently than existing agencies, like NASA. In some ways, it suggests that Australia will put the needs of the nation first and advancing humanity's understanding of outer space second. Related: China wants to send 13 different payloads to Mars by 2020 "It will provide the vehicle for Australia to have a long-term strategic plan for space - a plan that supports the innovative application of space technologies and grows our domestic space industry, including through defense space procurement," said Acting Industry Minister Michaelia Cash. "But this is not just about an agency for an agency's sake: that is why the review process is so important. We now need to put in the hard work to determine what form of agency and what mandate is best suited to support our growing industry." Related: Will China become the second country to put humans on the Moon? To this day, Australia is one of the world’s only remaining developed countries without its own space agency, so the announcement is exciting for both Australia and for the scientific community hoping to benefit from additional collaboration on the problems surrounding space technologies. With space becoming so much more than just an optional frontier for scientific research as of late, Australia has a lot to gain by joining the limited global presence above our skies. Many profitable ventures exist thanks to the seemingly-limitless needs of space experiments and astronaut travel. Additionally, it could reduce Australia’s dependence on other nations for satellite data and space research. There’s no telling what kinds of activities Australia’s upcoming space agency will take part in, but it goes without saying that its establishment will create thousands of jobs and help strengthen both the country’s economy and scientific capabilities. It should be interesting to see what becomes of the bold new venture. Source: BBC

A recent study published in Communications Earth & Environment examines how the Earth’s Moon could be the source of the near-Earth asteroid (NEA), Kamo`oalewa (also known as 469219 Kamo`oalewa), which was first discovered in April 2016 and is approximately 0.02 miles in diameter. While the longstanding hypothesis is that NEAs originate from the asteroid belt that orbits beyond Mars, researchers at the University of Arizona (UArizona) have analyzed the reflection characteristics of Kamo`oalewa to better understand its true origin. "We are now establishing that the moon is a more likely source of Kamo`oalewa," said Dr. Renu Malhotra, who is a Regents Professor of Planetary Sciences at UArizona and a co-author on the study. This study builds on a 2021 study that discovered the reflection properties of Kamo`oalewa matched those of the Moon, which caused speculation that Kamo`oalewa could have been produced from a meteoroid impact on the lunar surface. Another reason for this study was Kamo`oalewa is designated as a quasi-satellite of Earth, meaning while it orbits the Sun, its unique orbit gives the illusion that it orbits the Earth. For the study, the researchers used computer simulations that calculated the gravitational forces for all the planets in the solar system and discovered that some of the shrapnel that was expelled from the Moon during an impact within the last few million years could have created Kamo`oalewa. The Moon is constantly being bombarded by impacts from micrometeoroids, but larger impacts occurred as recently as a few million years ago. While some of these fragments get pulled in by Earth’s gravity and burn up in our atmosphere, this study demonstrates that some could escape the gravitational influences of both planetary bodies and get grabbed by the Sun’s gravitational influence instead. "We looked at Kamo`oalewa's spectrum only because it was in an unusual orbit," said Dr. Malhotra. "If it had been a typical near-Earth asteroid, no one would have thought to find its spectrum and we wouldn't have known Kamo`oalewa could be a lunar fragment." Going forward, the team hopes to investigate the age of Kamo`oalewa and the parameters that allowed it to enter its unique orbit. What new discoveries will researchers make about Kamo`oalewa in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: Communications Earth & Environment, EurekAlert!, Wikipedia, UArizona News, Communications Earth & Environment (1), Wikipedia (1) Featured Image: Artist rendition of a meteorite impacting the lunar surface. (Credit: NASA)

NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft made a historic fly-by of the dwarf-planet Pluto on July 14, 2015, but even after six and a half years scientists are still combing over data and further unraveling mysteries about this distant and icy world. This fly-by is the only fly-by, to date, of this very intriguing world whose physical appearance and composition has been shrouded in mystery ever since it was first discovered in 1930. A recent study published in Nature showed that Pluto is still very much geologically active despite its immense distance from our Sun, approximately 3.67 billion miles away. This distance matters since geologic processes on atmospheric-bearing rocky worlds such as Venus, Earth, and Mars are often driven by incoming solar radiation. Discovering that Pluto is geologically active is truly extraordinary considering it only receives 1/1600 as much sunlight as the Earth. The region of study on Pluto is one of the planet’s largest craters, Sputnik Planitia, which contains a bright plain slightly larger than France and is filled with nitrogen ice. “When the space probe New Horizon performed the only, to date, fly-by of Pluto in 2015, the collected data was enough to drastically change our understanding of this remote world.” said Dr. Adrien Morison, lead author of the study and Research Fellow with the University of Exeter’s Physics and Astronomy department. The numerical simulations conducted in this study showed that cooling from sublimation (any substance, in this case ice, going straight from a solid to a gas without becoming a liquid) is able to power convection (planetary cooling), and is consistent with data coming from New Horizons. Due to this geologic activity occurring so far from the Sun, such mechanisms could also occur on other distant rocky worlds such as Neptune’s largest moon, Triton, and even some Kuiper Belt objects, such as Makemake and Eris, the latter two of which are farther out than Pluto, approximately 4.3 billion and 6.3 billion miles from the Sun, respectively. Despite this incredible study, Dr. Morison stated that there are still questions behind just how these processes occur. Sources: Nature, John D. Cook

The heart is one of the most reliable parts of the body. It pumps day and night, delivering fresh oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. Unfortunately, there are times when the heart might not be able to keep up. Cardiomyopathy is a sort of catch-all condition that describes when your heart can not pump blood effectively due to problems in the muscles of the heart. Restrictive cardiomyopathy is related to the build up of scar tissue, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is related to the “thickening” of the heart, and dilated cardiomyopathy is when the heart muscles stretch. While each of these is different, all prevent effective contraction of the heart. Modern medicine relies on diagnostics to identify diseases so they can be treated properly and effectively. Cardiomyopathy is no different. Next-generation diagnostics aims at improving the power of diagnostic tests to identify diseases and their specific sub-types, but to do it much faster. In a new study out of the Puerta del Mar University Hospital in Spain, a team of researchers wanted to know if microRNA might be the way to go for such tests. MicroRNA are small bits of genetic information that can regulate various things in a cell. A growing number of studies supports the use of microRNAs in the blood as biomarkers for many diseases. This study focused on identifying microRNAs that correlated with changes in left ventricular ejection fraction (a physiological indicator of many heart problems) in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. The study began by screening through miRNAs that were differentially expressed in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. 179 hits were identified, with the team taking the best 26 to test. When they tried to see if any of these miRNAs could possibly be used to differentiate moderate from severe dilated cardiomyopathy, they found that only 14 miRNAs had any correlation with either. Of these 14, 3 were considered effective at differentiating moderate from severe dilated cardiomyopathy. The team new that a powerful diagnostic tool often considers other variables beyond biomarkers, so they ran an analysis to see what variables commonly used in cardiovascular diagnostics would work with the microRNAs they identified. They found that when the microRNAs were used in conjunction with a few cardiac indicators (left bundle branch block, left ventricular end systolic dimension, systolic blood pressure, and smoking), the diagnostic model was quite powerful for severe dilated cardiomyopathy. The diagnostic potential of miRNAs is quite promising in many disease cases. For dilated cardiomyopathy, this study identified three that when taken alongside a few clinical variables, could reliably diagnose the severe form of the disease. The study concludes, “In conclusion, we identified a miRNAs fingerprint that is differentially expressed in the idiopathic DCMSEV population. This signature arises as a potential clinical biomarker to discriminate DCM etiology and stratify its risk, based on the LVEF.” Sources: Nature Scientific Reports, British Heart Foundation

Russia is now studying how long-term space travel may impact human behavior and health. Six people, including three men and three women, have been locked away inside of an artificial spacecraft this week to simulate a long-term trip into outer space. Image Credit: Andrei Kovalenko/AFP/Getty Images Said mock spacecraft has an internal volume of around 8,800 cubic feet, so there’s a reasonable amount of room for the six individuals to conduct the isolation exercise. If the idea sounds familiar, that’s because the United States conducts comparable tests to achieve a better understanding of how missions to Mars might impact a person’s mental, physical, and social behavior; especially when around the opposite sex, and for extended time periods. Related: IKEA sends engineers to NASA's MDRS in Utah to develop more efficient flat-packing standards The Moscow-based science experiment, which is better known as SIRIUS (Scientific International Research In a Unique terrestrial Station), will persist for 17 days. The duration is long enough to resemble a full trip to the Moon, including the flight there, an orbit around our natural satellite, and then a ride back down to Earth. In future experiments, SIRIUS simulations could last much longer. Many of the goals are just like those in the crosshairs of U.S.-based operations, but one of the vital areas of interest is concluding what the best ratio of gender diversity would be for these long-term space missions. More excitingly, this is the first time in Russian history where more than one female populated a space crew, but this will become more significant after an official space launch takes place in the years to come. Aspirations are high, as project leader Oleg Orlov believes that Russia’s space agency could be ready to initiate these kinds of lunar launches by mid-2020. These experiments will also provide meaningful information for when the United States and Russia finally begin working on the world's first joint lunar-orbiting space station project. After all, crew members will probably spend more time there than on the International Space Station. It should be interesting to see what kinds of physical and psychological changes we can learn about from these test and whether we can find ways to make enduring these types of missions more comfortable on the crew members. Only time will tell. Source: The Guardian

Last Saturday, the County of San Diego Communications Office reported four pediatric cases of E. coli linked to contact with animals at the San Diego County Fair. The impacted children visited the fair in Del Mar, California, between June 8 through June 15. Sadly, a two-year-old boy was hospitalized and died from complications related to the infection caused by the Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli (STEC). The other three cases were not hospitalized and impacted children up to 13 years of age. County public health officer Wilma J. Wooten stated, “Our sympathies go out to the family of the child that died from this illness. While most people recover from this illness without complications, 5 to 10 percent of people diagnosed with STEC develop the life-threatening kidney infection.” According to the County’s statement, those with a STEC infection will begin to feel ill 3 to 4 days after ingesting food or drink contaminated with E. coli bacteria. Some experience symptoms within a one- to 10-day window. Symptoms of a STEC infection typically include severe stomach cramps, watery or bloody diarrhea (three or more episodes in 24 hours), and vomiting. A mild fever may or may not be present. A New York Times article reported that the San Diego County Fair has more than 2,900 animals and animal-related activities including pig races and livestock shows featuring calves, rabbits, pigeons, and goats. Since the STEC infections were traced back to exposure at the fair, the animal areas were closed off to the public over the weekend, and the animals are being removed from the fairgrounds. The exact source of the E. coli transmission from animal to human has not yet been discovered. The fair’s information officer told the New York Times, “They don’t know whether it was in the livestock barn or the petting zoo. We have a number of different access points to animals.” The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has also reported 209 E. coli infections from contaminated ground beef and issued a food safety alert on June 19, 2019. The fair food stands that the children utilized passed reinspection. To prevent E. coli infections from animals, the CDC recommends washing hands often, keeping food and drinks out of animal areas, and supervising children around animals. Sources: County News Center, CDC, New York Times

Out of the dozens of moons that orbit Saturn, Titan is perhaps one of the most interesting. Not only is it the largest of them all, but planetary scientists seem confident that it could foster habitable conditions. Given Titan’s unique environmental circumstances, it shouldn’t come as any surprise that NASA wants to study it more closely. Fortunately, a mission concept code-named ‘Dragonfly’ could bring humankind closer to achieving this goal in the near future. Image Credit: Steve Gribben/Johns Hopkins APL Assuming planetary scientists are right about Titan, it could harbor a dense atmosphere tantamount to Earth’s. That said, we should be able to send a drone-like quadcopter to Titan, where it can fly around and collect vital information for scientific analysis. Related: Cassini spots methane clouds on Titan Typical quadcopters are both small and light, enabling them to fight Earth’s gravitational pull with the help of its own atmospheric density. A quadcopter built for the Dragonfly mission, on the other hand, would be large and heavy. It would take full advantage of Titan’s low gravity and high atmospheric density to take flight. So why an aerial drone rather than a land-crawling rover? The scientists involved with the project say that it would help scientists overcome various restrictions that come with land-based travel, including longevity, mobility, and range, just to name a few. “There’s something very ‘simple’ about having a little drone flying around Titan,” explained Catherine Neish, an Earth Sciences professor and planetary geologist involved with the Dragonfly mission’s development. “It’s clever in a way that people weren’t expecting and, I think, it’s audacious and exciting –­ and realistic.” Related: Could humans survive on Enceladus or Titan? The Dragonfly quadcopter would sport precision rotors that would make it highly maneuverable, along with numerous sensors that would monitor the moon’s environment for signs of habitability or possible traces of life. On the other hand, Titan’s distance from the Sun nixes solar power from the list of viable energy sources for Dragonfly’s onboard tech. Instead, it would have to rely on plutonium-powered generators just like the Mars Curiosity rover. This would provide the vehicle with up to two years of runtime. It should be interesting to see whether such a concept ever materializes and what it might find when it gets there. But for now, all we can do is continue making educated guesses with the limited data we have about Titan and its mysterious characteristics. Source: University of Western Ontario

While every effort is made to ensure that the stuff we send into space is free of Earthly contamination, microorganisms have been detected on the International Space Station (ISS). Researchers have been trying to learn more about how space changes these microbes; they seem to get tougher. They may pose a danger to the astronauts that have to share close quarters with them, especially because future missions may be very long and that astronauts have to stay healthy. Scientists are trying to make spaceflight safer, and have taken a small step in that direction. “Spaceflight can turn harmless bacteria into potential pathogens,” said the senior author of the work, Professor Elisabeth Grohmann of Beuth University of Applied Sciences Berlin. “Just as stress hormones leave astronauts vulnerable to infection, the bacteria they carry become hardier - developing thick protective coatings and resistance to antibiotics - and more vigorous, multiplying and metabolizing faster.” A new antimicrobial coating that has a silver and ruthenium base was tested on the ISS. The coating, AGXX®, significantly reduced the amount of bacteria on surfaces that are likely to become contaminated. The findings, which may help improve missions to Mars, have been reported in Frontiers in Microbiology. “AGXX® contains both silver and ruthenium, conditioned by a vitamin derivative, and it kills all kinds of bacteria as well as certain fungi, yeasts, and viruses. The effects are similar to bleach - except the coating is self-regenerating, so it never gets used up,” explained Grohmann. Related: Space Bacteria are Adapting to Survive The microbes onboard the ISS are subjected to myriad stressors, like cosmos radiation and microwaves. Those extraterrestrial conditions can cause the microbes to evolve, and microbes are usually able to share and spread genes around in a community easily. Learn more about the microbes found on the ISS from the video. Since silver has been used for ages to prevent the growth of microbes, researchers employed it in the new AGXX® coating, which was tested on the door of the ISS toilet. It was found to be very effective. “After six months exposure on the ISS, no bacteria were recovered from AGXX®-coated surfaces,” said Grohmann. When the researchers checked the surface after twelve and nineteen months, only twelve microbes were recovered; compared to bare steel, there was an eighty percent reduction. A coating of silver only had a mild effect, reducing the bacteria level by thirty percent compared to steel. “With prolonged exposure time a few bacteria escaped the antimicrobial action. The antimicrobial test-materials are static surfaces, where dead cells, dust particles, and cell debris can accumulate over time and interfere with the direct contact between the antimicrobial surface and the bacteria,” noted Grohmann. “Most importantly, no serious human pathogens were found on any surface. Thus, the infection risk for the ISS crew currently is low.” An assessment of the bacteria that was isolated showed that they could all form tough biofilms that can resist destruction, and many were resistant to at least three antimicrobials. “Immunosuppression, bacterial virulence and therefore infection risk increase with duration of spaceflight. We must continue to develop new approaches to combat bacterial infections if we are to attempt longer missions to Mars and beyond,” Grohmann added. “For our part, we are continuing to analyze the antimicrobial performance of AGXX®, most recently aboard the joint IBMP-NASA SIRIUS 18/9 isolation mission.” Sources: AAAS/Eurekalert! Via Frontiers, Frontiers in Microbiology