It's taken more than 100 days since its launch, but NOAA's Deep Space Climate Observatory, (referred to as the DSCOVR satellite) has reached its final orbit. Another satellite in orbit, you may think. Big deal. Well, DSCOVR is unique. Other satellites orbit the Earth at a distance of no more than a few hundred miles. DSCOVR is orbiting the sun, at what is known as Lagrange point 1, about a million miles from Earth. There it will be able to study the Sun, monitor the solar wind, the stream of charged particles coming off the Sun, as well as providing early warnings of solar flares and other solar radiation headed for Earth.So, you may be wondering, what is a lagrange point? Are cattle or ZZ Top involved. No, incidentally, to both. A lagrange point is the point between two gravitational bodies, in this case the Earth and the Sun, where the gravitational pull of each of those bodies will hold an object, in this case the DSCOVR satellite, in balance between the two. So in its current orbit DSCOVR will require very little station keeping course corrections because it is being held in place by the gravitational pull of the Earth on one side and the gravitational pull of the Sun on the other. Get it?Why do we care about the weather from the Sun? Do you like using your GPS enabled device? Do you like talking to someone on the phone who's more than a few hundred miles away? How about the internet, or for that matter any electrically powered device? Well, the thing is, a solar flare can interfere with any or all of them. If it's intense enough, a solar flare could even fry them. And let's not forget astronauts. Even aboard the International Space Station, though they do get some protection from the Earth's magnetosphere, astronauts there have a lot less protection than we do down here on the surface. With enough early warning that a super intense solar flare was on its way from the surface of the Sun, we could make the necessary changes the courses of satellites, or the ISS, or, if necessary, have astronauts bug out and return back to Earth. Advanced warning of solar flares will also be extremely important once we start sending people to the Moon or Mars. Remember that aside from whatever kind of shielding technology we can come up with for them, astronauts out in space, away from the Earth's magnetic field have no protection from solar radiation or solar flares.DSCOVR is not all about the Sun. While one side of the satellite will be facing the Sun all the time, the other side will be facing Earth. On that side DSCOVR has two NASA Earth-observing instruments that will gather data on things like ozone and aerosol amounts, and changes in what is called the Earth's radiation budget. This is the balance between incoming radiation (largely from the sun) and that which is reflected from Earth. This is important balance it affects our climate.(Sources: phys.org, NOAA, Wikipedia)

What is like in the core of large rocky planets? Using high-powered laser beams, a team of researchers from Princeton University, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the University of Rochester have simulated conditions inside those so-called super-Earths, exoplanets that have up to ten times that of Earth's mass. Super-Earths have long captured astronomers’ attention because a lot of them have Earth-like planetary features. If they also orbit a star in the habitable zone, they could be prime candidates to host alien life form. These exoplanets all have a mass higher than Earth's, but substantially below the masses of the Solar System's ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune. The first super-Earths were discovered orbiting around a pulsar called PSR B1257+12 in 1992. The two outer planets of the system have masses approximately four times Earth. In the following decades, 2,000 of super-Earths have been found. In August 2016, astronomers announced the detection of Proxima b. It is an exoplanet that is 1.3 times the size of earth, and its red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun, in the so-called Goldilocks zone. The news has triggered huge public interests of exoplanets and extra-terrestrial life. Although all are rocky planets, different makeup ingredients could determine the size of the planets. For example, Iron-rich planets are smaller and denser, when compared to other planets of comparable mass but made of other elements such as silica, carbon, water and even carbon monoxide. The structures and compositions of super-Earths are intriguing subjects because we cannot find any example in our own backyard. Mercury, Venus, and Mars are rocky planets, but they are all smaller than the Earth. Scientists can safely assume the main components of super-Earths are iron-silicon alloy due to their size and density relationship. By studying how iron and silicon alloys behave under an extraordinarily high pressure created by the laser, researchers are modeling what could be happening at the core of super-Earths and gain new insights into the nature of these planetary giants. In the study, two samples of the iron-silicon alloy were compressed for only a tiny fraction of a second, just long enough to allow scientists to probe the atomic structure using a technique called X-ray diffraction. The pressures measured in this study was 1,314 gigapascals (GPa) at the highest, almost four times higher compared to the Earth (330-360 GPa). The X-ray diffraction pattern provided information on the density and crystal structure of the iron-silicon alloys, revealing that the crystal structure changed with higher silicon content and generate new, more robust models for the interior structure of large, rocky exoplanets. The work was recently published in the journal Science Advances NASA Confirms Closest Super-Earth Ever. (Wall Street Journal) Source: Princeton University/Science Daily

Research published in Frontiers in Marine Science paper describes the discovery of a soft coral garden in the waters off of west Greenland. As the first of its kind found in the region, the research team responsible for the discovery hope that the 486 square kilometers that encompass it will be named a 'Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem' under UN guidelines in order to protect it. The research was carried out by scientists from UCL, ZSL, and Greenland Institute of Natural Resources who utilized a deep-sea video camera that they developed in order to explore the ocean floor. First author Stephen Long commented: "The deep sea is often overlooked in terms of exploration. In fact, we have better maps of the surface of Mars, than we do of the deep sea. The development of a low-cost tool that can withstand deep-sea environments opens up new possibilities for our understanding and management of marine ecosystems. We'll be working with the Greenland government and fishing industry to ensure this fragile, complex, and beautiful habitat is protected." The soft coral garden that they found lies about 500 meters below the ocean’s surface and exists at a pressure 50 times greater than at sea-level (ouch, my ears hurt just thinking about that!). The camera that Long and fellow colleagues developed in order to explore it consists of a towed video sled, which uses a GoPro video camera, lights, and lasers in special pressure housings, mounted on a steel frame. Long said: "A towed video sled is not unique. However, our research is certainly the first example of a low-cost DIY video sled being used to explore deep-sea habitats in Greenland's 2.2million km² of sea. So far, the team has managed to reach an impressive depth of 1,500m. It has worked remarkably well and led to interest from researchers in other parts of the world." This inexpensive DIY system allowed the researchers to observe 44,035 annotations of various fauna, the most abundant of which were anemones (15,531) and cauliflower corals (11,633), with cauliflower corals observed at a maximum density of 9.36 corals per square meter. Other fauna included feather stars, sponges, brittle stars, and hydrozoans bryozoans. While the soft coral garden lives in nearly complete darkness, its diversity is undeniable. Dr. Chris Yesson (ZSL), the last author on the study, said "Coral gardens are characterized by collections of one or more species (typically of non-reef forming coral), that sit on a wide range of hard and soft bottom habitats, from rock to sand, and support a diversity of fauna. There is considerable diversity among coral garden communities, which have previously been observed in areas such as northwest and southeast Iceland." The researchers hope their discovery of the soft coral garden will encourage its protection, especially given that it sits directly adjacent to economically important deep-sea trawl fisheries. “Despite knowing so little about these seafloor habitats, the Greenlandic economy depends on a small number of fisheries which trawl the seabed. We hope that studies like this will increase our understanding of ecological relationships, and contribute to sustainable fisheries management," concludes Dr. Martin Blicher. Sources: Frontiers in Marine Science, Science Daily

NASA has hyped up the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) since its inception, but only as the telescope nears completion and proceeds through its final testing phases are scientists finalizing plans for its initial uses. While the JWST is several times more capable than its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope, scientists want to use it to examine our solar system more carefully before studying other stellar systems and their exoplanets. Image Credit: NASA Astrobiologists are keying in on specific moons circling the planets beyond Mars. For example, vapor plumes are known to spew from the surfaces of Enceladus and Europa, an indication that sub-surface ocean is present. Most experts agree that this could make the moons habitable for microbiology or other forms of life. Related: Saturn's moon Enceladus is thought to have a global, sub-surface ocean While we’ve only grabbed glimpses of these plumes from passerby spacecraft like Cassini and Voyager (1 & 2), and from the legacy Hubble Space Telescope, the JWST offers superior observation equipment that will yield the most robust data ever obtained. In a statement, NASA explained how the JWST’s near-infrared cam (NIRCam) would capture high-resolution images of Europa, looking for warmer regions indicative of plume activity worthy of study. “Are they made of water ice? Is hot water vapor being released? What is the temperature of the active regions and the emitted water? Webb telescope’s measurements will allow us to address these questions with unprecedented accuracy and precision,” NASA planetary scientist Geronimo Villanueva elaborated. Once the JWST finds an active plume, the JWST's near-infrared spectrograph (NIRSpec) and mid-infrared instrument (MIRI) will dig deeper to analyze its chemical composition and determine whether microbial life could have produced the chemicals we find. Enceladus will be trickier because it’s so much smaller. The NIRCam won’t be useful because taking high-resolution images of such a small moon would be improbable. Instead, scientists will focus on Enceladus' chemical composition and whether it's the right fit for life. Worthy of note, the presence of life-supporting chemicals doesn't necessarily mean life exists on the world we observe. Villanueva cites how naturally-occurring geological processes can also produce the known byproducts of microbial life; just because we find the chemicals there doesn't mean the moon supports life. Related: Jupiter's moon Europa might have an Earth-like ocean chemistry Another challenge is how the plumes may or may not be active when the JWST makes it observations. Some believe the plumes are active all the time, while others think they occur in spurts. If the latter is true, then luck plays a role because we need to catch one while it's active to obtain useful data. No one knows for sure what we might find when we start peering at Enceladus and Europa, but scientists can’t wait to get answers. Even if we don’t get the data we’re hoping for, the observations could prove instrumental in determining where to send future space missions and how to equip them for their tasks. The JWST is scheduled to launch in October of 2018. Source: NASA

As we progress into the future of space exploration with some major changes coming in the way we think our missions, NASA has announced that they’ve brought on 12 new male and female astronaut candidates for 2017. Image Credit: NASA/Robert Markowitz NASA says they’ve received a record-breaking number of applications (18,300) from aspiring astronauts to-be and that they’ve picked the largest astronaut class since 2000. The 12 new astronaut candidates also mean NASA has selected as many as 350 astronauts since the original Mercury 7 back in 1959. These are the folks that could carry out future space missions, whether it’s with a trip to the International Space Station on a commercial rocket and cargo ship, or a trip to deep space with NASA’s upcoming Space Launch System rocket inside of an Orion spacecraft. The ages of the selected astronaut candidates range from 29-42. Meet them below: Kayla Barron, 29 from Richland, Washington Zena Cardman, 29 from Williamsburg, Virginia Raja Chari, 39 from Waterloo, Iowa Matthew Dominick, 35 from Wheat Ridge, Colorado Bob Hines, 42 from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Warren “Woody” Hoburg, 31 from Pittsburgh Pennsylvania Dr. Jonny Kim, 33 from Los Angeles, California Robb Kulin, 33 from Anchorage, Alaska Jasmin Moghbeli, 33 from Baldwin, New York Loral O’Hara, 34 from Sugar Island, Texas Dr. Francisco “Frank” Rubio, 41 from Miami, Florida Jessica Watkins, 29 from Lafayette, Colorado “We look forward to the energy and talent of these astronauts fueling our exciting future of discovery,” acting NASA Administrator Robert Lightfoot said. “Between expanding the crew on board the space station to conduct more research than ever before, and making preparations to send humans farther into space than we’ve ever been, we are going to keep them busy. These candidates are an important addition to the NASA family and the nation’s human spaceflight team.” The selected astronaut class of 2017 will visit Johnson Space Center in Houston in August to begin their astronaut training where they’ll learn more about space safety, space equipment, space technology, and space physics. Related: NASA's plans for sending astronauts to Mars “These women and men deserve our enthusiastic congratulations,” said astronaut and Johnson Space Center Director Ellen Ochoa. “Children all across the United States right now dream of being in their shoes someday. We here at NASA are excited to welcome them to the team and look forward to working with them to inspire the next generation of explorers.” Seeing a new generation take the torch at NASA is as inspiring as ever for young aspiring astronauts who want to be able to go to space one day. If you're interested in becoming an astronaut some day, then you might want to learn more about the requirements and what training looks like on NASA's Tumblr blog. Source: NASA

When astronauts go to space, many of them become anemic; they lose red blood cells. It's been suggested that space anemia was a side effect of a shift in fluids that happens in the upper bodies of astronauts once they get to space; about ten percent of the fluid in their blood vessels is lost when that occurs. Their bodies compensated by shedding red blood cells, or so it's been thought. In an average person, there is a normal loss of about two million red blood cells every second, which are replaced by stem cells in the bone marrow. New research has shown that loss accelerates in space. This work, reported in Nature Medicine, analyzed the health of fourteen astronauts during six-month missions in space. The study determined that they lost 54 percent more red blood cells while they were in space compared to how many they lost when they are on Earth. The astronauts were losing about 3 million red blood cells per second, in both male and female astronauts. “Our study shows that upon arriving in space, more red blood cells are destroyed, and this continues for the entire duration of the astronaut’s mission,” said lead study author Dr. Guy Trudel of The Ottawa Hospital and the University of Ottawa. In this study, the researchers used methods to measure the destruction of red blood cells, which were adapted for sample collection on the International Space Station. Back at the Trudel lab, the study authors measured small levels of carbon monoxide in breath samples from the astronauts. Heme is the pigment in red blood cells that gives them their color, and each time a red blood cell is lost and its heme is destroyed, a single molecule of carbon monoxide is generated. The production of red blood cells was not measured in this study, but the scientists assumed that the astronauts' bodies generated extra red blood cells, or they would have become severely anemic and unhealthy. Five of thirteen astronauts did have anemia once back on Earth (a blood sample was not available from the fourteenth). The levels of their red blood cells returned to normal over about three months after their return. Trudel explained that because there is no gravity in space, weightless bodies can also deal with the loss of red blood cells more easily. "The effects of anemia are only felt once you land, and must deal with gravity again,” said Trudel. However, a year later, the destruction of red blood cells was still elevated, and was about 30 percent higher than it had been prior to the space mission. More work will be needed to determine the mechanism underlying the lingering impact, or how long it might last. We also don't know how the effect may build up over longer missions. This study shows that astronauts or space tourists should be screened for anemia before they embark on a mission. It may be important to modify their diet to help treat a loss of iron. Another study by this team indicated that longer missions cause a more significant impact, which could have implications for future missions to Mars. This research may also provide some insight into health conditions closer to home. Bedrest is associated with anemia, and Trudel suggested that there may be similar mechanisms at work behind that observation and what happens in space. Sources: The Ottawa Hospital, Nature Medicine

A recent study published in Geochemical Perspectives Letters examines how the official birthdate of the Earth’s Moon could be pushed back by approximately 40 million years, making it at minimum 4.46 billion years old. This comes after scientists analyzed tiny crystals found within lunar dust brought back to Earth by the Apollo 17 crew in 1972 and holds the potential to help scientists better understand the formation and evolution of our nearest celestial neighbor. Apollo 17 astronaut, Dr. Harrison "Jack" Schmitt, exploring the lunar surface during an extravehicular activity. (Credit: NASA) “These crystals are the oldest known solids that formed after the giant impact. And because we know how old these crystals are, they serve as an anchor for the lunar chronology,” said Dr. Philipp Heck, who is the Senior Director of Research at the Field Museum in Chicago and a co-author on the study. For the study, the researchers analyzed atoms within zircon crystals of the lunar sample to determine the amount of radioactive decay it’s undergone. When an element undergoes radioactive decay, it sheds a certain number of protons and neutrons, resulting in it becoming a different element. The scientists hypothesize that these crystals formed after the cooling of the lunar magma ocean was finished. Thus, finding the minimum age of the crystals determines the minimum age of the Moon. In the end, the team determined that the lunar sample was approximately 4.46 billion years old, which they have concluded must be the minimum age of the Moon. Image of study lead author, Dr. Jennika Greer, analyzing zircon crystals with the atom probe. (Credit: Dieter Isheim, Northwestern) Image of a lunar zircon grain under a microscope that was the focus of this study. (Credit: Dr. Jennika Greer) “It’s amazing being able to have proof that the rock you’re holding is the oldest bit of the Moon we’ve found so far,” said Dr. Jennika Greer, who is a Research Associate at the University of Glasgow, conducted the research while a PhD Candidate at the Field Museum, and is lead author of the study. “It’s an anchor point for so many questions about the Earth. When you know how old something is, you can better understand what has happened to it in its history.” While this most recent study helps pinpoint the age of the Moon, the current hypothesis regarding how the Moon formed is the giant-impact theory, which is when a Mars-sized object collided with the Earth sending large chunks into Earth’s orbit, that eventually coalesced and formed our Moon. While Apollo 17 was the last time humans walked on the Moon’s surface, NASA’s upcoming Artemis missions should bring back more lunar samples which will only continue to teach us about the Moon’s age, formation, and evolution. What new discoveries will researchers make about the Moon in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: Geochemical Perspectives Letters, NASA, EurekAlert!, Science News Explores, Natural History Museum, NASA (1)

The seemingly-endless search for extraterrestrial life in our universe continues on, and while we haven’t found any leads just yet, we do continue to search for terrestrial exoplanets that might have the same or similar conditions to those we have here on Earth. One of our closest stellar neighbors is Proxima b, which has a lot of potential to support life. On the other hand, as discussed in a study that appears in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics, Proxima b might only be capable of supporting life if it has an atmosphere similar to our own. Image Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser The findings were made possible by University of Exeter researchers who took the information we currently know about Proxima b and used it with the Met Office Unified Model (UM), which is usually used for predicting climate change on Earth. Related: Exoplanets orbiting red dwarfs are unlikely to support life By playing around with the figures, they were able to mess around with different scenarios in which the exoplanet might have slightly variant atmospheric conditions or near mirror image atmospheric conditions. “We present results of … the responses of both an ‘Earth-like’ atmosphere and simplified nitrogen and trace carbon dioxide atmosphere to the radiation likely received by Proxima Centauri B,” the researchers write in the paper. “Overall, our results are in agreement with previous studies in suggesting Proxima Centauri B may well have surface temperatures conducive to the presence of liquid water.” Related: Does Proxima b have a global ocean? What they found during their simulations was that Proxima b might have a chance of supporting liquid water on its surface as long as it has either an Earth-like atmosphere, or at the very least, a simple atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Where there is water, there is a very real possibility for the existence of life. But hang on; we’re not out of the woods just yet… Existing in the habitable zone of its host star, Proxima b should already have the right temperature conditions to support life, but more factors contribute to temperature than just where the exoplanet resides around its host star. For example, the exoplanet also needs a protective magnetic field, which works in tandem with an atmosphere to protect the surface from stellar radiation, and the right chemical composition in addition to an atmosphere and surface water to support life forms. All of these factors help regulate the temperature of the planet to sustain life, and without each of them, the planet could look just like Mars – dry and barren. While having an atmosphere is a pretty big “if” as to whether or not Proxima b supports life, it’s pretty reassuring to know that models right here on Earth can be used to help predict its habitability. Even if Proxima b has liquid water, it’s still possible that there isn’t any life, so there’s a lot to potentially consider. Unfortunately, because Proxima b is so far away (4.2 light years to be exact), we don’t have the means to observe the exoplanet up close or to put a lander on its surface to check for life and answer our ongoing questions. We’re stuck relying on space telescopes and computer models for the time being. Making things even more complicated, other exoplanets besides Proxima b are even more distant from us, so it’s a difficult task to find life outside of our Solar System. Related: The upcoming James Webb Space Telescope may help us study Proxima b Fortunately, space observation and exploration equipment is getting more powerful and versatile with each passing day, so perhaps we’ll come across something at some point. Source: Gizmodo

Here on Earth, we have something called volcanoes. We think we understand them very well; they’re essentially vents for Earth’s underground networks of molten rock, and when the pressure down there builds up to be too high, it will all eventually start spewing out of a volcano. On the other hand, there are several volcanoes on Earth; some exist on the rocky surface, and others are under the surface of our oceans. Whatever the case, there are certainly more than one. It’s this exact logic that is causing confusion about a lone ice volcano on Ceres, a dwarf planet that resides in between Mars and Jupiter. Apparently, this lone ice volcano, which goes by the name of Ahuna Mons, is the only one to be found on the entire dwarf planet today, and it’s simply baffling the minds of scientists. It makes no sense for Ceres to have just one ice volcano, and some experts think that it wasn’t always alone. Image Credit: NASA Reporting in the Geophysical Research Letters, a group of researchers led by Michael M. Sori from the University of Arizona in Tucson explain that Ceres might have once had many ice volcanos, but they vanish from time to time. “Imagine if there was just one volcano on all of Earth,” Sori said. “That would be puzzling. We think we have a very good case that there have been lots of cryovolcanoes on Ceres but they have deformed.” The researchers point directly at the steep sides of Ahuna Mons as evidence for two likely scenarios that would explain why it exists in solitude: 1) the ice volcano exists alone because it was only just recently formed, or 2) it’s alone because a process on Ceres repeatedly wears down ice volcanoes and just happens to have left this one behind. Whenever we see smooth or steep structures on Earth, such as canyons, we understand that weathering can have an impact on how they turn out, on the other hand, Ceres doesn’t have an atmosphere, so weathering isn’t possible. Another way for similar structures to form on Earth is from flowing water, in which the water will carve its own crevices into structures over time. But is there any flowing water on Ceres like here on Earth? I would certainly not seem that way. On the other hand, Ceres may exhibit viscous relaxation, which is a process where even some solids can flow. The property of viscous relaxation can be observed in frozen ice (glaciers) and many other examples on Earth, and as the statement from the researchers points out, if you were to take a frozen block of honey and let it sit, it would eventually flatten out over time due to this process. Since Ceres’ ice volcanoes are, well… ice, this would explain why Ahuna Mons appears to be the last remaining ice volcano; perhaps the rest of them have already flattened out and become harder to find. This process wouldn’t be too difficult considering that Ceres isn’t too far away from the Sun, a source of heat that can melt ice. To be affected by viscous relaxation, Ahuna Mons would need to be composed of around 40% water ice. Even at these rates, the researchers were able to use computer models, to find that viscous relaxation would cause Ceres’ ice volcanoes to shrink by 30-160 feet every million years or so. At this rate, ice volcanoes can literally disappear from the face of Ceres in a scale of hundreds of millions of years or billions of years. Since Ahuna Mons is 200 million years old, viscous relaxation could explain the super-smooth sides of the ice volcano, but since it’s relatively young, much more time would have to pass for the ice volcano to vanish completely. On the other hand, in order for the team to really prove that their theory holds any water, they will have to try and find the remains of older ice volcanoes that no longer exist on Ceres to compare to the last man standing. It should be interesting to see what future studies will bring in terms of why this appears to be the only remaining ice volcano on Ceres. Even if Ahuna Mons really is the only ice volcano that ever existed on Ceres, this research will take us one step closer to unraveling the mystery. Source: AGU via Engadet

Daliah Raquel Bibas is a second-year Geology & Planetary Sciences Master’s Degree Candidate at Western University in London, Ontario, Canada. This comes after earning a Bachelor’s of Science Degree in Biology & Medical Sciences in April 2021, also at Western. “I always knew I loved sciences – I have been asking questions about life since I was a child,” said Bibas. “Questions like ‘How did life start?’ and ‘Does life exist beyond Earth?’ were regularly in my mind. I have always felt a strong urge to seek answers to these questions.” Initially, Bibas pursued an undergraduate degree in Medical Sciences because she aspired to attend medical school. However, this all changed in her third year when she took Astrobiology as an elective saying she fell in love with it, later adding Biology to her major while looking for graduate programs in Astrobiology. “I have always been intrigued by the concept of life and the existence of life beyond planet Earth, but I never considered it as a potential career path before taking this course,” said Bibas. “The course material really opened my eyes to the amount of knowledge that is still unknown and awaiting to be discovered. Since then, my focus has shifted to Earth and Space Sciences, and I have been reading and learning about these topics as much as I can, both in school and in my free time.” Bibas credits Carl Sagan as being her inspiration, saying both his writings and research gives her so much fulfillment. Like her hero, Bibas also believes there is life beyond the Earth and her goal is to dedicate her life to finding it. “By pursuing a master’s degree, I am provided with the knowledge, experience, and network required to achieve my career objectives,” said Bibas. “I hope to make contributions to the emerging field of Astrobiology and believe that a master’s of science degree in this field will ultimately lead me to the next step in my academic and professional career.” Bibas gives enormous praise to both Western University’s Institute for Earth and Space Exploration and her advisor, Dr. Gordon Osinski, saying his research is what drew her to the program. She adds his enthusiasm and passion for his work is “truly contagious”, and she feels fortunate to have the opportunity to work with him. Even with this, Bibas says that time management, work-life balance, and other associated stresses from academia are possibly the hardest challenges for graduate students in science. “I personally struggle with feeling like I need to be constantly studying while also maintaining a social life, said Bibas. “Keeping motivation and avoiding burnouts can also be difficult. Furthermore, finding a job that doesn’t require years of work experience is a very common challenge for students in my field today.” Bibas says she aspires to earn a PhD with the goal of being involved in both industry and academia, as she sees herself possibly teaching at the university level while conducting industry research. “In 5-10 years from now, I would like to be an entrepreneur focusing on several projects,” said Bibas. “I am passionate about educating; hence, I would love to teach at a university level and share my knowledge via my own books or podcast. I hope to contribute to the space exploration industry, whether that’s helping plan a NASA sample-return mission or design a future Mars base. In addition, I also want to be a consultant for space-related ventures, such as terraforming Mars or attempting to contact potential intelligent life beyond Earth, and for accurate science in media, such as science fiction movies or documentaries about life on Earth and in the cosmos.” As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

Going to space is a dream for many. Astronauts are viewed almost as superheroes, but the dangers of space travel cannot be underestimated. On long trips, similar to what would be needed to send a crewed mission to Mars, there is the danger of stress and mental breakdowns during the long voyage into the vastness of space. With any mission that goes beyond a low Earth orbit, there is an enormous amount of galactic cosmic radiation, which can be toxic to the brain. High energy protons and other charged particles collide and produce unprecedented levels of radiation. These rays mess with the cells and molecules in the body and can do some real damage to cognition and memory. For those who spend time on the International Space Station, there are radiation shields in place, and the ISS is only exposed to a few minutes of radiation each day. It's difficult to study because ethically, you cannot expose astronauts to radiation just to see what happens. Recent research into a simulation of space-like radiation in mice has revealed an unexpected result. The study showed that not everyone's brain is impacted in the same way by cosmic radiation. Research funded by NASA and carried out at UC San Francisco shows that in female mice, there were no signs of cognitive decline or structural changes in the brain. Male mice showed significant damage to the brain in the same environment. Dr. Karen Krukowski, Ph.D., is a postdoctoral researcher and the first author of the research paper which was published online this month in the journal Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. She explained, "We can see stark differences in the female responses, from behavioral read-outs down to the cellular and molecular level, when compared to the male counterparts. We did not expect to see a difference – it was a bit surprising." UCSF neuroscientist Dr. Susanna Rosi, Ph.D., oversees the lab that conducted the research. She is also a professor of physical therapy, rehabilitation and neurological surgery and a member of the UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences. In a press release she stated, "Thanks to NASA, we are planning on doing further research to understand the specific mechanisms behind these profound differences. Based on recent evidence, we believe that cells known as microglia protect the female brain against insults such as deep space radiation. Understanding what makes these cells more resistant could be key to pinpointing specific treatments." Limiting exposure to radiation is crucial if NASA is to launch a spacecraft to Mars by the year 2030. Understanding that radiation exposure to the brain differs in men and women is a significant piece of the puzzle of getting astronauts into deep space. The most recent class of astronauts at NASA is 40% female, so it's important to realize the differences between men and women when it comes to brain health in space. So how did they do it? A specific mixture of protons, helium, and oxygen dubbed the "GCR cocktail" was developed for the work. Previous research used just single elements of radiation found in space and used only male rodents. A mixture is closer to what would be found out past the Earth's magnetic field and sex differences matter. The male mice in the study had significant behavioral changes, difficulty recognizing familiar objects and their interaction with other mice dropped. Increased activity of immune cells in the brain also occurred, in the hippocampus which is where memory and cognition are processed. Synaptic connections fell in this area, and AMPA receptors needed for neurotransmitters also decreased. In the female mice? None of this happened. They had no reduced cognition, no behavior changes and no loss of any receptors. The differences could be related to the fact that female mice have more resting microglia cells. These prevent the inflammatory response that was seen in the male mice. Without the excitability of the cells, the brains of female mice were protected. The work will continue, with different kinds of radiation as well as efforts to "reset" the immune response to see if that will help protect male brains. To learn more about this study, check out the video below. Sources: UCSF Digital Trends Brain, Behavior, and Immunity

NASA and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) are undertaking a collaborative project called the Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment-Night (LuSEE-Night), a proposed radio telescope that will be based on the far side of the Moon. The primary goal of the project will be to detect radio waves emanating from what’s known as the Dark Ages of the Universe, what scientists refer to as the “Dark Age Signal”, which is a period beginning approximately 380,000 years after the Big Bang when no stars or planets were formed, and a period that’s been unable to be observed by scientists. “Modeling the universe is easier before stars have formed. We can calculate almost everything exactly,” said Dr. Anze Slosar, who is a physicist and Distinguished Scientist at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. “So far, we can only make predictions about earlier stages of the universe using a benchmark called the cosmic microwave background. The Dark Ages Signal would provide a new benchmark. And if predictions based on each benchmark don’t match, that means we’ve discovered new physics.” Having LuSEE-Night on the far side of the Moon will provide an ample opportunity to scan the universe for radio signals given the complete radio silence it has from Earth due to both celestial bodies being tidally locked to each other. This is why the same side of the Moon always faces Earth with the lunar phase cycle (from Full Moon to Full Moon) lasting 29.5 days. However, this also presents new challenges as while the lunar far side is immersed in total darkness for 14 Earth days, it’s then immersed in complete sunlight for another 14 Earth days. This means the surface experience temperature fluctuations between 250°F (120°C) and -280°F (-173°C), which could prove challenging for a robotic explorer to survive. “The moon is easier to reach than Mars, but everything else is more challenging,” said Paul O’Connor, who is a senior scientist in Brookhaven’s Instrumentation Division and the Project Instrument Scientist on LuSEE-Night. “There's a reason only one robotic rover has landed on the Moon in the last 50 years, while six went to Mars, which is 100 times farther away. It’s a vacuum environment, which makes removing heat difficult, and there’s a bunch of radiation.” Paul O'Connor (left), Anze Slosar (center), and Sven Herrmann(right) in the Brookhaven instrumentation lab where the researchers are developing the spectrometer for LuSEE-Night, the heart of the instrument. (Credit: Brookhaven National Laboratory) The proposed landing site for LuSee-Night on the far side of the Moon. (Credit: NASA/USGS/JAXA/SELENE) Such a drastic temperature range could not only interfere with LuSEE-Night receiving and transmitting data back to Earth, but could also cause instruments to freeze, thus ending the mission earlier than expected. “LuSEE-Night will operate during the cold temperatures of the 14-day lunar night, when no sunlight is available to generate power or heat,” said Dr. Joel Kearns, who is the Deputy Associate Administrator for Exploration in NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. “In addition to the significant potential science return, demonstration of the LuSEE-Night lunar night survival technology is critical to performing long-term, high-priority science investigations from the lunar surface.” Upon landing on the lunar far side, LuSEE-Night’s lander will permanently turn off to prevent it from producing radio interference on the surface. Next, LuSEE-Night’s telescope will deploy a turntable containing four three-meter-long antennas that will be used to collect and transmit the data. Once this is complete, LuSEE-Night will have to endure its first major hurdle, which is to survive its first night on the Moon’s far side, which as stated, lasts 14 Earth days. The first set of data will be collected and transmitted after the first 40 days of the mission, but until then, scientists much patiently wait to see if the spacecraft survived. If survival is achieved, LuSEE-Night will prove that accomplishing radio cosmology experiments on the far side of the Moon is attainable. LuSee-Night is scheduled to be delivered to the far side of the Moon on NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) in 2025. Sources: Brookhaven National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, LuSEE-Night, NASA As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

This series will explore historic space missions from the start of the Space Age to the present day, including both crewed and robotic missions. Here we will investigate the scientific rationale behind each mission and, most importantly, what we learned from these early missions and how they helped shape future missions that will launch to the Moon and Mars within the coming years. SpaceX is launching and landing rockets with ease, and NASA’s Space Launch System is about to have its maiden flight before it takes astronauts back the Moon in the next few years. But the Space Age didn’t start off running at full speed, as there was a slow crawl followed by a few stumbles on our way to beating the Soviet Union to the Moon. Here, we will discuss NASA’s Pioneer Program. The experimental Pioneer Program was the first conducted by NASA and was operated from 1958 to 1978, with the first launch of the program occurring less than a month after the space agency was officially founded in July 1958. While the first few missions of Pioneer (0-4) had the goal of exploring the region around the Moon, later Pioneer spacecraft were launched to investigate specific planetary bodies or other space phenomena, such as interplanetary-particle and magnetic-field effects. Unfortunately, much like SpaceX had trouble initially landing their rockets on ocean barges, NASA also had their own hiccups during their first missions. Pioneer 0’s booster exploded shortly after liftoff and Pioneer 1 experienced a booster malfunction and failed to reach Lunar orbit. While the latter mission sent back data on radiation and magnetic fields in near-Earth space, it unfortunately re-entered Earth’s atmosphere 43 hours after it launched. But with every new mission, NASA learned from its mistakes. After Pioneer 3 experienced a booster failure that prevented it from achieving escape velocity, Pioneer 4 then became the first spacecraft to escape Earth’s gravitational pull only a few short months later, ultimately flying within 60,000 km (37,282 miles) of the Moon. The proceeding Pioneer missions achieved enormous success, with each mission traveling father out and allowing us to gain even more knowledge about the solar system. Pioneer 5 launched in March 1960 and successfully examined the interplanetary space between the orbits of Earth and Venus. Pioneers 6 through 9 were launched in the mid- to late-1960s and were designed to examine space phenomena such as solar wind and the interplanetary environment from several widely separated points in space. All four spacecraft lasted well into the 1980s and 90s, with Pioneer 6 operating for over 30 years since launch. Pioneers 10 and 11 took leaps and bounds beyond their predecessors, becoming the first spacecrafts to study beyond Mars, with both spacecraft flying through the asteroid belt and conducting flybys of Jupiter, with Pioneer 11 also conducting a flyby of Saturn. Much like the later Voyager spacecrafts, Pioneer 10 and 11 are now traveling toward interstellar space since their missions have concluded. After the success of Pioneer 10 and 11, NASA turned its gaze back to the inner solar system, launching the Pioneer Venus Orbiter to Venus in May 1978 and arriving in December 1978 to investigate Venus’ upper atmosphere and ionosphere, as well as conducting radar mapping of the surface and investigating the solar wind in the Venusian environment. The probe was equipped with countless instruments initially designed to last only one year, but most of which were operational even as the spacecraft burned up in Venus’ atmosphere in October 1992 due to the spacecraft being low on fuel. The final mission in the Pioneer program was the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, which was launched in August 1978 arriving at Venus in November of that same year. The mission was designed to study the Venusian atmosphere in detail and consisted of one large and three small atmospheric probes, all of which entered the atmosphere in December, all of which sent back data about the environmental conditions and composition of Venus’ atmosphere. While initially getting off to a shaky start, NASA’s Pioneer Program ultimately displayed what humanity can achieve by learning from their mistakes and taking greater risks to study the unknown. This program is a testament to the tireless dedication to science and the study of the cosmos. The lessons learned from Pioneer ultimately paved the way for both robotic and human space missions in the coming years and decades, and should be given credit as laying the groundwork for the upcoming Artemis missions to the Moon. Sources: Universe Today, Britannica, Historic Spacecraft, NASA, NASA (2) As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

For nearly twenty years, people have been living on the International Space Station for various periods of time; some have lived onboard for hundreds of days. With these lengthy trips and the potential of future missions to Mars, there are good reasons to assess the impact of space travel on human health. Recent work has found that space can affect gene expression in humans and bacterial behaviors. Scientists at NASA have now determined that herpes viruses can reactivate in space; they did so in over half the crew members onboard International Space Station and space shuttle missions. Only some of those crew members actually had symptoms, but the rate of viral reactivation went up as the length of spaceflight increased. The work has been reported in Frontiers in Microbiology. "NASA astronauts endure weeks or even months exposed to microgravity and cosmic radiation - not to mention the extreme G forces of take-off and re-entry," said the senior author of the work Dr. Satish K. Mehta of KBR Wyle at the Johnson Space Center. "This physical challenge is compounded by more familiar stressors like social separation, confinement, and an altered sleep-wake cycle." Because it’s possible for the herpes virus to become active again in immunocompromised astronauts, they may present a serious risk to lengthy missions, such as to Mars. NASA is creating tools to detect viruses rapidly, and therapeutics to treat them. That could benefit not only astronauts, but also people on Earth with weakened immune systems. In this study, the researchers assessed biological samples collected from astronauts before, during and after a trip to space. They found that biological markers of stress went up, which gives dormant viruses a chance to come alive. “During spaceflight, there is a rise in secretion of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, which are known to suppress the immune system. In keeping with this, we find that astronaut's immune cells - particularly those that normally suppress and eliminate viruses - become less effective during spaceflight and sometimes for up to 60 days after,” said Mehta. “To date, 47 out of 89 (53%) astronauts on short space shuttle flights, and 14 out of 23 (61%) on longer ISS missions shed herpes viruses in their saliva or urine samples. These frequencies, as well as the quantity of viral shedding, are markedly higher than in samples from before or after flight, or from matched healthy controls." Half the known human herpes viruses could be detected in the samples, including chickenpox and shingles (VZV) and oral and genital herpes (HSV). Few symptoms were exhibited. “Only six astronauts developed any symptoms due to viral reactivation,” said Mehta. “All were minor.” Learn more about the various types of herpes viruses from the video above by Albert Einstein College of Medicine. It does present a danger, however, to uninfected contacts back on Earth, especially immunocompromised infants. “Infectious VZV and CMV were shed in body fluids up to 30 days following return from the International Space Station,” Mehta explained. It could also be an issue for longer space missions. Viral reactivation could become a health issue for astronauts and whoever they come into contact with. “The magnitude, frequency, and duration of viral shedding all increase with length of spaceflight.” It’s essential to find a way to counteract this viral reactivation if deep-space missions are to be successful, suggested Mehta. "The ideal countermeasure is vaccination for astronauts - but this is so far available only against VZV." "Trials of other herpes virus vaccines show little promise, so our present focus is on developing targeted treatment regimens for individuals suffering the consequences of viral reactivation. This research has tremendous clinical relevance for patients on Earth too. Already, our spaceflight-developed technologies for rapid viral detection in saliva have been employed in clinics and hospitals around the world." The video above discusses the special challenges that arise when someone gets sick in space. Sources: AAAS/Eurekalert! Via Frontiers, Frontiers in Microbiology

The seventh SpaceX commercial crew mission, Crew-7, to the International Space Station (ISS) blasted off from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center on August 26th at 3:27 am EDT (12:27 am PDT) carrying a four-person crew with each astronaut representing a different organization and country. These include Commander Jasmin Moghbeli (NASA, United States), Pilot Andreas Mogensen (European Space Agency, Denmark), Mission Specialist Satoshi Furukawa (JAXA, Japan), and Mission Specialist Konstantin Borisov (Roscosmos, Russia). This nighttime launch was followed by a successful docking to the ISS the following day, and Crew-7 is scheduled to remain on the ISS for a six-month duration with a scheduled splashdown occurring sometime in the first quarter of 2024. NASA’s SpaceX Crew-7 blasted off to the International Space Station (ISS) from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center on August 26, 2023 carrying NASA astronaut Jasmin Moghbeli, ESA (European Space Agency) astronaut Andreas Mogensen, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) astronaut Satoshi Furukawa, and Roscosmos cosmonaut Konstantin Borisov for a six-month stay on the ISS. (Credit: NASA/Joel Kowsky) “Crew-7 is a shining example of the power of both American ingenuity and what we can accomplish when we work together,” NASA Administrator Bill Nelson said in an official NASA statement. “Aboard station, the crew will conduct more than 200 science experiments and technology demonstrations to prepare for missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, all while benefiting humanity on Earth. By partnering with countries around the world, NASA is engaging the best scientific minds to enable our bold missions, and it’s clear that we can do more – and we can learn more – when we work together.” During their mission, Crew-7 will perform a myriad of scientific experiments, including investigating the psychological characteristics for astronauts throughout their sleep on long-term spaceflights, conducting the first study regarding how the human body responds to various periods of time during spaceflight, and gathering microbial samples from the external surfaces of the ISS. These studies continue the longstanding goal of gaining better insight into long-term human spaceflight in microgravity, which will be pertinent for the upcoming Artemis missions to the Moon, and possibly sending humans to Mars, someday. “The International Space Station is an incredible science and technology platform that requires people from all around the world to maintain and maximize its benefits to people on Earth,” said Ken Bowersox, who is the associate administrator for the Space Operations Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington DC. “It’s great seeing Crew-7 launch with four crew members representing four countries who will live and work on humanity’s home in space as we continue the nearly 23 years of a continuous human presence aboard the microgravity laboratory.” Crew-7 is the latest edition to the long and rich history of the ISS hosting close to 300 astronauts from countries all over the world and conducting scientific experiments to improve humankind for the future, both in space and on Earth. These countries include the United States, Russia, Japan, Canada, Italy, France, Germany, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Great Britain, Israel, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, and Sweden. As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: NASA, NASA (1), European Space Agency, JAXA, Wikipedia, SpaceNews, NASA (2), NASA (3), NASA (4), NASA (5), NASA (6)

The role of telomeres in the aging process has become a hot topic in biology, and recent study have linked telomeres - the protective caps at the end of DNA strands - with a variety of diseases, including many forms of cancer.According to a review published by Paula Martinez and Maria Blasco from the Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncologicas (CNIO) in Trends in Biochemical Sciences and described in Science Daily, it is important to study the role of telomeres to improve the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases. These complex structures prevent the merger of chromosomes and prevent the loss of genetic information each time a cell divides (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150715130828.htm). In cell replication, the molecular mechanism that duplicates the chromosomes cannot reach the tip. Telomeres consist of a DNA sequence that does not contain genes and that is repeated many times. The shortening of the DNA with every division is not significant until a certain limit is reached. When telomeres become too short, there are problems associated with aging: cells interpret short telomeres as being damaged and stop dividing, which prevents tissue from regenerating.While this process happens in healthy cells, it does not happen in cancer cells. An enzyme, telomerase, can lengthen the telomeres. As the article explains, "This enzyme is not present in most cells of an adult organism, but it is active in tumor cells. By repairing the telomeres, the telomerase enables cancer cells to proliferate and become virtually immortal. It is possible to make cancer cells mortal by acting on the telomeres."Various researchers have discovered telomere syndromes, or telomeropathies, in people with mutations of the telomerase enzyme. Some examples of this syndrome are pulmonary fibrosis and bone marrow malfunction. There appears to be a direct relationship between telomere dysfunctions and many types of cancer. Mutations of the proteins that protect telomeric DNA (the shelterins) and proteins that interact with the telomeres, seem to be involved in various diseases, such as dyskeratosis congenita, Hoyeraal-Hreidarsson syndrome and Revesz syndrome.According to an article by Masood A. Shammas, "Telomeres, Lifestyle, Cancer and Again," found on the National Center for biotechnology Information website, telomere length shortens with age. Progressive shortening of telomeres affects the health and lifespan of an individual. Shorter telomeres indicate increased incidence of diseases and poor survival. Specific lifestyle factors affect the rate of telomere shortening. By choosing a better diet and better activities, people can reduce the rate of telomere shortening or prevent excessive telomere attrition, delaying the onset of age-associated diseases and increasing lifespan (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3370421/).

An example of solar electric propulsion. (Credit: NASA) In a recent study presented at the AIAA SCITECH 2023 Forum, a team of researchers at the University of Michigan (U-M) examined how a widely used electronic propulsion system in Earth orbit known as Hall thrusters can be designed to generate larger amounts of thrust, but with smaller thrusters. This study challenges a long-standing belief that Hall thrusters needed to be large to produce the necessary amount of thrust, but this could help open the doors for better thrusters to be used for interplanetary missions throughout the solar system. "People had previously thought that you could only push a certain amount of current through a thruster area, which in turn translates directly into how much force or thrust you can generate per unit area," Dr. Benjamin Jorns, who is a U-M associate professor of aerospace engineering, and a co-author on the study, said in a statement. For the study, the researchers successfully ran a 9-kilowatt Hall thruster up to 45 kilowatts while preserving approximately 80 percent of the thruster’s efficiency, which resulted in an increase of almost 10 times the amount of force generated per unit area. "We named our thruster the H9 MUSCLE because essentially, we took the H9 thruster and made a muscle car out of it by turning it up to 11 -- really up to a hundred, if we're going by accurate scaling," Leanne Su, a PhD student in aerospace engineering at U-M, and lead author of the study, said in a statement. The researchers were able to use this thruster to match the thrust of a much larger 100-kilowatt-class X3 Hall thruster, and believe their thrusters could allow future crewed Mars missions to reach the Red Planet, even from the far side of the Sun. Sources: AIAA SCITECH 2023 Forum, University of Michigan News As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

The Odysseus moon lander, which first launched for the moon on February 15, appears to have broken a leg upon landing and then fell over on the moon’s surface, with some of the first images received on Earth showing the broken leg. The craft landed close to the moon’s south pole. Though Odysseus is still generating power through solar energy at this time, it was only meant to survive about a week. After that, the lander was expected to go quiet once it entered into “lunar night” (ie, the dark side of the moon), which could spell the end for the lander. Reaching temperatures of nearly -130º Celsius, that kind of cold could destroy the batteries and other hardware on the lander, leaving it unable to communicate back to Earth. Odysseus, which was created by the private company Intuitive Machines, is the first private vessel to attempt a landing on the moon, and the first time the U.S. has attempted a landing in over 50 years. It’s also the second time a private enterprise has attempted a moon landing in collaboration with NASA; the first one had a fuel leakage issue the prevented the craft from leaving the atmosphere. Part of the reason for the incorrect landing was likely driven bya change in the lander’s navigation system. Late in the game, the lander switched away from its own navigation system (which had become inactive) to an experimental system provided by NASA. This laser system emerged as a novel, highly-precise method of navigation that could provide more clear guidance to landers in the lunar environment. Early technology for landing on planets and moons, such as Mars, leveraged radar technology. However, these tools were very imprecise because radar waves can cover a wide distance, nor could the differentiate between velocity and range. The laser system designed by NASA was designed to give more precise information for landing. However, Odysseus landed nearly a mile from its intended target and at a higher elevation than the flat terrain of the target landing zone. It also came in too fast, breaking a leg before sliding back on a nearby slope. Sources: Phys.org; BBC; CNN; NASA

Credit: forplayday/thinkstock From the discoveries of Earth-like exoplanets to finding water in every corner of our solar system, from the ubiquitous presence of life in extreme environments to the reception of bizarre radio signals from space, it is harder and harder not to speculate that life could pop up somewhere other than just Earth. But where are they? The Nobel Prize-winning physicist Enrico Fermi once asked this question during a lunch with his colleagues. Besides the most well-known zoo hypothesis, which hypothesizes that we are placed inside some cosmic zoo, observed but left alone to develop without external interference, many other theories have been proposed, with some sounding more probable than others. Life, after all, could be rare in the universe. One might think the evolution of life on Earth should be quite typical, but many believe the opposite is true: the conditions needed for the evolution of life (biologically complex life forms) are rare or even unique to Earth. Under this assumption, life requires a series of serendipities such as a galactic habitable zone, a central star and planetary system having the requisite character, a right-sized terrestrial planet that is located in the Goldilocks Zone, and many other prerequisites that favor the emergence of carbon-based life. Even if complex life forms are common, say one day we find bacteria on Mars, intelligence may not be. Under the assumption that intelligent life forms exist, there are still many factors that limit the chances for us to find them. One of the popular hypotheses out there is that life has a tendency to self-destroy or destroy others. We do not need to look deep into the history of humankind to find the examples of both scenarios. On the self-destruction front, the famed sci-fi writer Arthur C. Clarke once wrote that it has yet to be determined whether intelligence has any survival value. Despite the apparent advantages humans have through their high intelligence in comparison to other species on Earth, we also have the unfortunate combination of two qualities: we are very good at constructing tools and systems, but terrible at long-term planning and forecasting. The duality of civilizations like ours can lead to self-destruction before or shortly after developing radio or spaceflight technology, through nuclear war, resource depletion, climate change, or rogue artificial intelligence. According to a recent paper that attempted to unravel the secret behind the cosmic silence, human society could be at the brink of extinction. It is believed that the Earth should be habitable for animals at least a billion years into the future. Based on how long it took proto-primates to evolve into a technological species like us, it should leave enough time for the process to happen up to 23 more times. On that time scale, there could also have been others before us, but there's nothing in the geologic record to indicate that we are not the first. Regarding aggression against others, intelligent beings have the tendency (and the means) to destroy other species, intelligent or not. As feared by the renowned astrophysicist Steven Hawking, alien civilizations could be rapacious marauders, “roaming the cosmos in search of resources to plunder and planets to conquer and colonize.” Human beings are just like ants from their perspective, easily crushable if standing between them and their desired resource. Because of such potential risk, he advocated for the maximum caution in human kind’s search for extraterrestrial life forms. Some would argue that intelligent life forms are perhaps too far away from each other to communicate. Space is vast and communication (assuming the transmission is traveling at the speed of light) takes a lot of time and requires resources. With an incredibly sensitive radio telescope, Earth's television and radio broadcasts would only be detected up to 0.3 lightyears away (that is less than 1/10 the distance to our nearest neighbor star Alpha Centauri A). And the signal would take up to 4 months to be received. If two civilizations are separated by several thousand of lightyears, it is possible that one or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialogue could be established. According to a newly emerging theory, as unorthodox as it might sound, scientists believe that the aliens have deactivated themselves, which makes them impossible to detect. These extraterrestrial intelligent beings in question, who have taken a post-biological form of existence, could have been sleeping all along while they wait for the universe to cool down. The assumption is that the consciousness of the entire civilization has been uploaded to a digitalized mechanism, which resembles a computer. To maximize its computational capacity, this artificial life would have chosen to be in sleep mode and would not be waking up again until the universe gets colder. Many alien hunters have also questioned if we have been listening properly. The SETI (acronym for Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) programs operate with limitations regarding the type of transmission and the origin of the signals. A message from aliens is much easier to detect if the signal energy is limited to either a narrow range of frequencies or directed at a specific part of the sky. That is why telescopes could have missed signals of unconventional frequencies or signals resembling background noise. If the radio transmissions come from the star systems that are in a lower priority on the list, we could have easily missed them. The Arecibo Message in graphic format. Credit: Wikipedia The Arecibo message is a prime example from the alien’s perspective. In 1974 an interstellar radio message carrying essential information about humanity and Earth was sent to globular star cluster M13 from the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, in the hope that extraterrestrial intelligence might receive and decipher it. But aliens in cluster M13 would have to aim their telescopes toward the region of space to which our message was sent, and set them to an appropriate range of frequencies. Some have long suspected fast radio burst (FRB), a high-energy astrophysical phenomenon of unknown origin, to be the aliens’ preferred method of communication to reach other sentient beings in the universe. It is so transient that it lasts as short as a few milliseconds. This September, Breakthrough Listen – a global astronomical initiative to find signs of intelligent life in the universe, has detected 15 more brief but powerful radio pulses from FRB 121102, a mysterious source from a distant galaxy. Since the discovery of the first FRB in 2007, many FRBs have been detected. But FRB 121102 is different - it is the only one known to repeat. As exciting as this might seem, SETI researchers are still unclear about what kind of message the FRB transmissions carry. Is it simply a signal telling other intelligent beings that life exists elsewhere in the universe? Does it encode blueprints to build a vessel that can travel through space? Sometimes promising leads in the search for aliens can turn out to be a false positive. Back in 1977, a team of astronomers studying radio transmissions from an observatory at Ohio State called the "Big Ear" recorded an unusual 72-second signal - it was so strong that team member Jerry Ehman scrawled "Wow!" next to the readout. But this year through the close-up observation of 266/P Christensen, a comet returning to the night sky nearly 40 years since the “Wow!” signal, the Center of Planetary Science has pinpointed the source of the mysterious transmission to the hydrogen cloud accompanying the comet. Maybe one day we will hear a real “hello” from intelligent beings from galaxies far far away, putting a definitive end to Fermi’s famous question. But then humankind will need to prepare for what comes next. Just like the old saying, be careful what you wish for. The Fermi Paradox II — Solutions and Ideas – Where Are All The Aliens. Credit: Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell Source: phys.org/EarthSkyNews/sciencedaily/space.com

What are dark comets and how are they responsible for delivering water to the Earth? This is what a recent study published in Icarus hopes to address as a team of international researchers investigated the origins of dark comets and their evolution throughout the history of the solar system, including how much water they could have potentially brought to Earth in the past. This study holds the potential to help astronomers better understand dark comets and the formation and evolution of planetary bodies throughout the solar system. Dark comets are often described as being a combination of asteroids and classified based on their unique behaviors, specifically their ability to accelerate without the aid of gravitational means, which researchers have previously hypothesized to be invisible gas jets emanating like traditional comets. Additionally, their physical characteristics consist of dark surfaces that could be hiding an icy subsurface, whereas traditional comets exhibit icy characteristics directly on their surface. Credit: Pixabay For the study, the researchers used computer models to analyze the number of dark comets that reside within the solar system, along with how they could have delivered water to the Earth deep in our planet’s ancient past. In the end, the team estimates that between 0.5 and 60 percent of all near-Earth objects could be dark comets while hypothesizing their origins are the main asteroid belt that lies between Mars and Jupiter. This suggests that asteroids within the main asteroid belt could possess ice beneath their dark and dusty surfaces and could also imply that they could be the source of water that was delivered to the Earth long ago. "We think these objects came from the inner and/or outer main asteroid belt, and the implication of that is that this is another mechanism for getting some ice into the inner solar system," said Aster Taylor, who is a graduate student in the University of Michigan’s Department of Astronomy and lead author of the study. "There may be more ice in the inner main belt than we thought. There may be more objects like this out there. This could be a significant fraction of the nearest population. We don't really know, but we have many more questions because of these findings." What new discoveries about dark comets will researchers make in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! As always, keep doing science & keep looking up! Sources: Icarus, EurekAlert!

Bacteria that grow in colonies can be extremely difficult to eliminate; the bacteria in these groups often become resistant to drugs or antimicrobials. Known as biofilms, bacterial communities that grow on surfaces can be found in many places, including medical devices. Biofilms are far stronger than free-floating microbes on their own, and an estimated 80 percent of chronic infections are linked to biofilms. Scientists have now devised a new approach to attack these dangerous bugs, with a 'living medicine' that's made up of other microbes. The medicine was tested on catheters that were infected with biofilms in three settings: in the lab, in tissue taken from an organism, and in a mouse model. When the mouse model of infection was treated with the 'living medicine,' 82 percent of infections were eliminated. The findings have been reported in Molecular Systems Biology. Many biofilms are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, and standard antibiotics cannot remove them. So if a patient has a medical implant infected by an S. aureus biofilm, enzymes or antibodies are sometimes useful, but these treatments can harm normal cells and cause side effects because they are not designed to specifically target the infection. Patients may have to undergo surgery to remove the infection. Microbes are already engaged in a battle with one another for resources and survival. The researchers thought that the molecules produced by living microorganisms could be another way to treat biofilms. Bacterial genomes are also small and easily manipulated. In this study, the scientists selected a bacterium called Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which doesn't have a cell wall. As such, it can evade the immune system and can easily release therapeutic molecules. This microbe also tends to hold onto its DNA, which doesn't tend to mutate naturally, and not pass it to other microbes. The researchers began by eliminating the pathogenicity of this bacterium so it would not make people sick. They also engineered the bacterial genome to easily release two enzymes that it was modified to produce. Each of those enzymes can dissolve biofilms. The scientists are hopeful that these bacteria can be used first to remove biofilms from breathing tubes. Safety testing is complete. The next issue to address is manufacturing, "and we expect to start clinical trials in 2023," said co-corresponding study author María Lluch, Chief Science Officer of Pulmobiotics S.L. This technique might be applicable to other health problems."Bacteria are ideal vehicles for 'living medicine' because they can carry any given therapeutic protein to treat the source of a disease," suggested study co-author Luis Serrano, ICREA Research Professor and Director of the Centre for Genomic Regulation. "One of the great benefits of the technology is that once they reach their destination, bacterial vectors offer continuous and localized production of the therapeutic molecule." Sources: Centre for Genomic Regulation, Molecular Systems Biology

Spaceflight is being marketed as a tourist opportunity for exorbitantly wealthy people, and lengthy space missions that could take astronauts to Mars are being planned. Researcher Jamila Siamwala was a part of NASA's Twins Study, which assessed the impact of spaceflight on astronaut Scott Kelly, who spent a year in space. His physiology was compared to that of his astronaut twin Mark Kelly, who remained on Earth during that time. Siamwala suggested that before we start ramping up commercial spaceflight efforts or embarking on other extreme endeavors in space, like manufacturing, we have to learn more about the potential impact of spaceflight on human health. A small study reported in the Journal of the American Heart Association has now investigated that question by studying blood samples that were taken from a group of astronauts. These samples were collected between 1998 and 2001 from fourteen NASA astronauts who were aboard the International Space Station for periods ranging from five to thirteen days. The researchers were able assess the levels of molecules called cell-free mitochondrial DNA in those samples. Mitochondria are crucial organelles that generate power and perform some other functions in cells. They carry their own tiny genome and can even produce their own proteins. Research has shown that this mitochondrial DNA can end up in circulation. That so-called cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf mtDNA) has also been found to have an association with several human diseases. In NASA's Twin Study, it was found that there was an increase in the level of circulating cf mtDNA after Kelly's prolonged space flight compared to his Earth-based twin. This research has confirmed that finding; after the astronauts had returned to Earth, the levels of cf mtDNA in the blood had increased in all of the astronauts. Those levels continued to increase in the three days following their return. However, the degree of that increase was incredibly variable from one astronaut to another, ranging from a two- to 355 fold increase in cf-mtDNA. This cf-mtDNA may be driving inflammation, suggested senior study author Dr. David Goukassian. An additional analysis of the white blood cells in those blood samples revealed that markers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage were all increased in the astronauts too. "It's a vicious circle: Radiation may induce DNA damage, which may induce oxidative stress, which leads to inflammation, which can lead to DNA damage," said Goukassian, a professor of cardiology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York City. Sources: American Heart Association, Journal of the American Heart Association

When we need medicine, we hop down to the local drugstore or pharmacy and have our prescriptions filled. But what happens when doctors or emergency responders are in remote areas with limited time and limited access? Where’s their pharmacy? MIT researchers tackled this problem by developing a portable unit that’s capable of producing drugs on demand. The concept is similar to another prototype that was developed by a group, also at MIT, earlier this year. However, the current portable pharmacy runs on yeast. Yes, yeast. Specifically, yeast of the Pichia pastoris strain. In their paper, published in Nature Communications, the team detailed how a small drop of yeast cells suspended in liquid can act as a bioreactor, manufacturing a single dose of a drug. “We altered the yeast so it could be more easily genetically modified, and could include more than one therapeutic in its repertoire,” said Timothy Lu, head of the Synthetic Biology Group at MIT’s Research Laboratory of Electronics, and senior author of the study. The yeast is modified to express therapeutic proteins upon exposure to different chemical stimuli. These cells are also low maintenance in terms of food and care, but can express a large amount of proteins, making them ideal as natural bioreactors. “Imagine you were on Mars or in a remote desert, without access to a full formulary, you could program the yeast to produce drugs on demand locally,” Lu said. Of course using cells as bioreactors has been widely exploited by nearly every pharmaceutical company. The genius in Lu’s research lays in compressing the entire process into a microbioreactor that’s entirely portable and requires a tiny amount of cells. The magic involves a microfluidic chip that receives the chemical trigger and sends it to the yeast. Then, pressurized gas ensures the mixing process is efficient and complete. “This makes sure that the one milliliter (of liquid) is homogenous, and that is important because diffusion at these small scales, where there is no turbulence, takes a surprisingly long time,” said Rajeev Ram, the MIT professor who developed the microfluidic chip, and senior co-author of the study. Researchers monitor the environment of the cells at all time, and they can change what proteins the yeast are producing by flushing in new liquid with different chemical triggers. “You want to keep the cells because they are your factory,” said Ram. “But you also want to rapidly change their chemical environment, in order to change the trigger for protein production.” Next, in addition to refining the system, the team is looking for even more capabilities for the microreactors. “If you could engineer a single strain, or maybe even a consortia of strains that grow together, to manufacture combinations of biologics or antibodies, that could be a very powerful way of producing these drugs at a reasonable cost,” said Lu. Additional source: MIT news release

After launching the Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security-Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) mission in September 2016, NASA set out to become the first space agency to visit a near-Earth object (NEO) and collect surface samples that would then be returned to Earth for scientific analysis. Two years later, OSIRIS-REx arrived at its destination – an asteroid called Bennu – and the spacecraft has been studying the curious world ever since. Image Credit: NASA/Goddard/University of Arizona/Lockheed Martin OSIRIS-REx has been particularly productive over the past several months. Not only is it providing planetary scientists with an unprecedented look at the space rock’s composition and surface features, but it recently got up close and personal with some of the mysterious particle plumes that appear to erupt from the asteroid’s surface, gathering information in the process. “The discovery of plumes is one of the biggest surprises of my scientific career,” commented OSIRIS-REx mission principal investigator Dante Lauretta. “And the rugged terrain went against all of our predictions. Bennu is already surprising us, and our exciting journey there is just getting started.” Related: Bennu appears to be both a moist and rocky world OSIRIS-REx first recognized Bennu’s puzzling particle plumes in January as it was orbiting from just a mile away, but the mission hasn’t had a chance to explore them until now. One of the primary findings was that while some of those particles seemed to eject far enough away from Bennu that they weren’t pulled back in by the space rock’s gravity, some of those particles had actually fallen back to its surface. Another acutely surprising finding made by the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft was that Bennu’s surface is comprised of a higher boulder density than initially thought. NASA wasn’t aware of Bennu’s high surface boulder density earlier because all previous observations were made from Earth. It wasn’t until OSIRIS-REx arrived at the asteroid that scientists learned otherwise. “The first three months of OSIRIS-REx’s up-close investigation of Bennu have reminded us what discovery is all about — surprises, quick thinking, and flexibility,” added NASA’s Lori Glaze. “We study asteroids like Bennu to learn about the origin of the solar system. OSIRIS-REx’s sample will help us answer some of the biggest questions about where we come from.” Related: OSIRIS-REx snaps its first picture of Bennu The findings have implications for the mission because they will make collecting surface samples with the proposed Touch and Go (TAG) gathering method more challenging than initially anticipated. Instead, mission scientists are now devising an alternative approach, code-named Bullseye TAG, which will target a smaller sample site free of boulder-based hazards. Fortunately, OSIRIS-REx project manager Rich Burns seems confident that the mission will overcome these hurdles: “Throughout OSIRIS-REx’s operations near Bennu, our spacecraft and operations team have demonstrated that we can achieve system performance that beats design requirements,” he said. “Bennu has issued us a challenge to deal with its rugged terrain, and we are confident that OSIRIS-REx is up to the task.” OSIRIS-REx isn’t expected to return surface samples to Earth until 2023, and with that in mind, mission scientists still have plenty of time left to discern the best plan of attack. Until then, OSIRIS-REx will continue studying the asteroid’s surface with the hope of learning something new about it. Source: NASA

The old stereotype of the "dumb pothead" (think "Dude, Where's My Car?") may have just been debunked by the latest scientific findings from multiple research groups independently testing the effects of cannabis exposure on the brain and intelligence scores. Longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies (for a description of each type of test, click here), and at least 1 meta-analyses have found very little, if any, impact of smoking on IQ scores or brain anatomy. This story broke yesterday in a piece on Truthout written by Paul Armentano. Photo source: Pixabay.com Mr. Armentano cites several studies which he uses to present his case that weed does not affect intelligence. For example, researchers at the University of California Los Angelos (UCLA), led by Dr. Laura A. Baker, used two longitudinal studies comparing adolescent twins. One of the twins smoked while the other did not. Researchers studied these twins over time and found no differences between the two in terms of IQ. However, IQ (Intelligent Quotient) is a dated form of measuring intelligence (and could be subject to socio-economic biases). What else has been done to support the claim that marijuana is not bad for your brain? Brain scans were performed on 781 young adults, ages 14-22, by researchers from the University of Pennsylvania led by Dr. J. Cobb Scott. His group found that, within the 147 cannabis users within the cohort, (109 occasional [≤1-2 times per week] and 38 frequent [≥3 times per week] users), there were no significant differences by cannabis group in global or regional brain volumes, cortical thickness, or gray matter density. Another brain scan study was just published in Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging by Dr. Rachel Thayer and colleagues at the University of Colorado - Boulder presenting their results of a pilot study comparing MRI scans in 28 cannabis users over the age of 60 versus matched controls. Cannabis users in the study, on average, had used marijuana weekly for 24 years. They concluded that "long-term cannabis exposure does not have a widespread impact on overall cortical volumes while controlling for age, despite over two decades of regular cannabis use on average". The results from this pilot study go against the literature suggesting that marijuana use, at least in adolescents on into adulthood, does produce neurological changes. This is where the results from the meta-analyses can help shed light on all of this data. Dr. Scott and colleagues from UPenn also performed a systematic review of 69 studies stemming from 1972 and found that continued cannabis was associated with small reductions in cognitive functioning, however, these deficits resolved after only 72 hours of abstinence. Photo source: Pixabay.com Another study published by Dr. Claire Mokrysz and colleagues of the University College London investigated associations between adolescent cannabis use and IQ and educational attainment in a sample of 2235 teenagers. They found that adolescent cannabis use is not associated with IQ or educational performance once an adjustment was made for potential confounds, in particular, adolescent cigarette use. They concluded that "modest cannabis use in teenagers may have less [of a] cognitive impact than epidemiological surveys of older cohorts have previously suggested". While these studies seem promising to pro-legislation groups, we have to remember that, in the world of research, a handful of studies, even meta-analyses, does not prove any facts either way. Instead, they help promote dialogue among all those involved. This includes researchers, lawmakers, patients, marijuana advocates, parents, teachers, etc. This is a much-needed discussion especially in the midst of changing marijuana laws. Sources: learning.closer.ac.uk, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis, truthout.org, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of The United States, TheConversation.com, Neuropsychopharmacology, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, Current Pharmaceutical Design, JAMA

We all (well, I do) wish we could work out more, but when we think about going to the gym we tend to promise ourselves that "we'll do it tomorrow, I mean it this time". We also (well, I do) try to eat healthy foods, but those candy bars look pretty tempting...oh a little couldn't hurt. The brain is biased towards reward and against pain (no pain no gain). Motivation is the factor here that determines whether you go for that jog or nibble on those cookies. And it turns out, our endocannabinoid system (ECS), which some call "the body's own marijuana system", may be behind the choices you make. Photo source: UnSplash.com The Institut National De La Sante et de la Recherche Medicale (Inserm), the French public institution of science and technology, acknowledges that a lack of intrinsic motivation to work out has major health consequences. Yet, the neurobiological bases of the motivation to exercise are unknown. The researchers wanted to find out whether the endocannabinoid system (ECS) is involved in this process. The study, published in the journal JCI Insight by Dr. Francis Chaoulof and colleagues, centers around the endocannabinoid receptor CB1. CB1 is represented mainly within the nervous system and is heavily expressed in areas of the brain involved in motivation. The researchers used wheel running, which mice will perform voluntarily, as a measure for activity or "exercise". Mice actually spend a lot of time wheel running, when given the chance, and scientists have found that the mice find it highly rewarding. The scientists developed a mouse operant procedure to compare the amount of effort (i.e. motivation) for either palatable food or access to an exercise wheel. The measure of motivation was the number of times mice poked their noses in a special port (aka "nose-pokes") were willing to perform for each option. They then used electrophysiological recordings of neuronal firing in dopamine neurons in anesthetized mice. They made an interesting observation; neuronal firing was correlated in mice who nose-poked for the wheel over controls with no wheel. Photo by Craig Swanson Another observation was that CB1 knock-out mice performed fewer active nose-pokes for the wheel even though they did not differ in how much running they actually did. The researchers interpreted this as less motivation to access the wheel, but not run on it. Ever dread going to the gym but feel fine once you start exercising (aside from work-out-related pain)? CB1 receptors on dopamine neurons may be involved in how "pumped" you are to get your burn on. And what about its role in snacking on junk food? Here we have a little more complicated situation. It turns out that CB1 receptors on GABAergic neurons are involved in the motivation for palatable food. Mice lacking CB1 receptors had fewer nose-pokes for either wheel running or palatable food when proposed alone, but the balance between these two drives became markedly dysregulated in favor of palatable food. Thus the CB1 receptor is necessary for both types of motivations, but the way in which it controls these two drives (energy expenditure versus energy intake) depends on the neurons (dopamine or GABA) that they are on. This can help explain why increasing CB1 activity via phytocannabinoids (e.g. THC) increases appetite (the "munchies"). What the main take-home message of this research is that our ECS is not a mirror for the effects we feel when using phytocannabinoids. Our ECS is much more complex than that. Sources: Inserm, JCI Insight, Current Clinical Pharmacology, Current Protocols in Mouse Biology, Animal Behaviour

When a person sleeps, the brain is still very hard at work. Everything that someone sees, does or learns in the average day is catalogued, in a sense, while asleep. It’s because your brain isn’t busy processing visual and auditory input, problem solving, speaking, walking, driving and doing all the other daily tasks. When the body is quiet, the brain can work on keeping memories and skills organized. For people who memory impairments due to injury or disease, this process doesn’t work as well so studying how to boost memory is an active field of research in neuroscience. A recent project at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine has shown for the first time that using transcranial alternating current stimulation, or tACS, to target a specific kind of brain activity during sleep can strengthen memory in healthy people. The results of this study were published in the journal Current Biology and they offer a new direction for patients with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s as well as those who suffer from mental illnesses like schizophrenia or major depressive disorder. During sleep, brain activity can be seen on EEG monitors. The electrical activity of the brain while during down time shows up in waves, that essentially oscillate back and forth in an alternating pattern. They’re called sleep spindles and the UNC study wanted to investigate whether or not they were involved in the process of storing memories. In a press release about the study senior author Flavio Frohlich, PhD, assistant professor of psychiatry and member of the UNC Neuroscience Center said, “But we didn’t know if sleep spindles enable or even cause memories to be stored and consolidated. They could’ve been merely byproducts of other brain processes that enabled what we learn to be stored as a memory. But our study shows that, indeed, the spindles are crucial for the process of creating memories we need for every-day life. And we can target them to enhance memory.” This study differed from others, many of which used tDCS, transcranial direct current stimulation. The problem with tDCS is that it works by zapping the brain with a constant low energy current. That kind of stimulation can affect the electrical output of the brain and then the results of the study are not clear. Using tACS the UNC team was able to directly target the sleep spindles without having other electrical activity mar their results. The study involved 16 healthy male participants who completed a screening night of sleep, and then two nights of sleep in the lab. Before going to bed each participant completed two common memory tests, one involving word association pairs and one involving motor skills with a finger tapping sequence. All of the participants were fitted with electrodes on their scalps. The first night all received an alternating current of electricity synchronized to their sleep spindle pattern. On the second night they all received phony stimulation that acted as a placebo. In the morning they were asked to repeat the two memory tests. While no improvement was found on the word association tests, there was a significant improvement in the motor skills test. “This demonstrated a direct causal link between the electric activity pattern of sleep spindles and the process of motor memory consolidation.” Frohlich said. The video below from UNC explains more, check it out. Sources: University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Psych Central()

It’s a big year for commercial space companies like Boeing and SpaceX; both have worked extraordinarily hard to bring crewed rocket launches back to American soil for the first time since 2011, and 2019 should finally be the year that they’ll get to witness the fruits of their efforts. Image Credit: Boeing/NASA Before either company gets the green light from NASA to move forward with a crewed rocket launch, they’ll first need to prove their flight capabilities by way of un-crewed launch tests. SpaceX’s demonstration launch is expected to transpire by next month, while Boeing’s demonstration launch is pegged for some time ‘this Spring.’ Related: Boeing wants to race SpaceX to Mars But while both companies prepare for the big launch day, NASA appears to have thrown an unexpected wrench in the original plan. The American space agency removed Eric Boe, an astronaut who spent more than three years of his life training to fly on Boeing’s first official crewed launch, with someone else. Unspecified medical reasons seem to be at the foot of NASA’s decision, but it wouldn’t take much to become disqualified from consideration. Strict health protocols limit NASA’s astronaut selection to only the healthiest human specimens around. But what of Boe’s replacement? It appears that NASA has chosen Mike Fincke, an experienced space station commander with 382 days in space accumulated under his belt over four separate missions. Fincke has also performed nine different spacewalks throughout his space-centric career. Image Credit: NASA While it’s undoubtedly unfortunate to Boe and his fans that he won’t get to be a part of Boeing’s first crewed flight later this year, NASA’s second choice has been met with a broadly-positive response. Fincke brings years’ worth of experience to the table, a valuable thing to have in a high-stress scenario like this one. “Eric Boe is awesome; it would have been an honor to fly with him again to the International Space Station,” responded Christopher Ferguson, one of the astronauts that will fly on Boeing’s CST-100 Starliner’s Crew Flight Test later this year. “The Starliner team is bummed that he isn’t making this trip. Mike Fincke brings years of experience and Nicole Mann, and I are glad to have him as a part of our crew.” Related: Watch SpaceX fly a Tesla Roadster into space with its Falcon Heavy rocket Despite all these changes on Boeing’s side of things, everything remains the same on SpaceX’s end. In fact, SpaceX just recently test-fired the engines of the Falcon 9 rocket that will be used on the company’s first un-crewed launch next month, symbolizing the company's readiness as the deadline approaches. These launches represent a critical step forward in the United States’ space industry as NASA moves away from its dependence on the Russian Soyuz platform for space science and research. With a little luck, perhaps everything will go as planned, and the United States can perform space research without relying on other nations to get us there. Source: NASA, Christopher Ferguson (Twitter), Wired